Understanding vessel noise across a network of marine protected areas.

Protected areas are typically managed as a network of sites exposed to varying anthropogenic conditions. Managing these networks benefits from monitoring of conditions across sites to help prioritize coordinated efforts. Monitoring marine vessel activity and related underwater radiated noise impacts across a network of protected areas, like the U.S. National Marine Sanctuary system, helps managers ensure the quality of habitats used by a wide range of marine species. Here, we use underwater acoustic detections of vessels to quantify different characteristics of vessel noise at 25 locations within eight marine sanctuaries including the Hawaiian Archipelago and the U.S. east and west coasts. Vessel noise metrics, including temporal presence and sound levels, were paired with Automatic Identification System (AIS) vessel tracking data to derive a suite of robust vessel noise indicators for use across the network of marine protected areas. Network-wide comparisons revealed a spectrum of vessel noise conditions that closely matched AIS vessel traffic composition. Shifts in vessel noise were correlated with the decrease in vessel activity early in the COVID-19 pandemic, and vessel speed reduction management initiatives. Improving our understanding of vessel noise conditions in these protected areas can help direct opportunities for reducing vessel noise, such as establishing and maintaining noise-free periods, enhancing port efficiency, engaging with regional and international vessel quieting initiatives, and leveraging co-benefits of management actions for reducing ocean noise.

Sperm whale acoustic abundance and dive behaviour in the western North Atlantic.

Sperm whales are an ideal species to study using passive acoustic technology because they spend the majority of their time underwater and produce echolocation clicks almost continuously while foraging. Passive acoustic line transect data collected between June and August 2016 were used to estimate a depth-corrected acoustic abundance and study the dive behaviour of foraging sperm whales in the western North Atlantic Ocean. 2D localizations (n = 699) were truncated at a slant range of 6500 m and combined with the multipath arrivals of surface reflected echoes to calculate 3D localizations (n = 274). Distance sampling using depth-corrected perpendicular distances resulted in a 10.5% change in the acoustic abundance estimate (2199 whales, CV = 14.6%) compared to uncorrected slant ranges (1969 whales, CV = 14.1%), and a detection function that was a better fit for the data. Sperm whales exhibited multiple foraging strategies, with bottom phases occurring at depths of 400-800, 800-1200, or > 1200 m, accounting for an average 39.2, 49.5, or 44.9% of the total recorded dive time, respectively. These results suggest that estimating 3D localizations using acoustic line transect data improves acoustic abundance estimation and can be used to answer population level questions about foraging ecology.

Monitoring spatial and temporal soundscape features within ecologically significant U.S. National Marine Sanctuaries.

The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Office of National Marine Sanctuaries manages a system of marine protected areas encompassing more than 2,000,000 km2 . U.S. National Marine Sanctuaries (NMS) have been designated to provide protection for their conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, cultural, archaeological, educational, or aesthetic qualities. Due to the large variability of attributes among NMS, designing coordinated system-wide monitoring to support diverse resource protection goals can be challenging. Underwater sound monitoring is seeing increasing application to marine protected area management because it is able to support this wide variety of information needs. Passive acoustics are providing invaluable autonomous information regarding habitat associations, identifying species spatial and temporal use, and highlighting patterns in conditions that are otherwise difficult to survey. Using standardized equipment and analysis methods this study collected ambient underwater sound data and derived measurements to investigate temporal changes in sound pressure levels and power spectral density, identify presence of select species of importance and support within and among site comparison of ambient underwater sound among eight sites within four U.S. NMS. Broadband sound pressure levels of ambient sound (10-24,000 Hz) varied as much as 24 dB re 1 µPa (max difference 100-124 dB re 1 µPa) among the recording sites, sanctuaries, and seasons. Biotic signals, such as snapping shrimp snaps and vocalizations of fishes, exhibited distinct diel and seasonal patterns and showed variation among sites. Presence of anthropogenic signals, such as vessel passage, also varied substantially among sites, ranging from on average 1.6-21.8 h/d. The study identified measurements that effectively summarized baseline soundscape attributes and prioritized future opportunities for integrating non-acoustic and acoustic variables in order to inform area-specific management questions within four ecologically varying U.S. National Marine Sanctuaries.

Near real-time detection of low-frequency baleen whale calls from an autonomous surface vehicle: Implementation, evaluation, and remaining challenges.

Mitigation of threats posed to marine mammals by human activities can be greatly improved with a better understanding of animal occurrence in real time. Recent advancements have enabled low-power passive acoustic systems to be integrated into long-endurance autonomous platforms for persistent near real-time monitoring of marine mammals via the sounds they produce. Here, the integration of a passive acoustic instrument capable of real-time detection and classification of low-frequency (LF) tonal sounds with a Liquid Robotics wave glider is reported. The goal of the integration was to enable monitoring of LF calls produced by baleen whales over periods of several months. Mechanical noises produced by the platform were significantly reduced by lubricating moving parts with polytetrafluoroethylene, incorporating rubber and springs to decelerate moving parts and shock mounting hydrophones. Flow noise was reduced with the development of a 21-element hydrophone array. Surface noise produced by breaking waves was not mitigated despite experimentation with baffles. Compared to a well-characterized moored passive acoustic monitoring buoy, the system greatly underestimated the occurrence of sei, fin, and North Atlantic right whales during a 37-d deployment, and therefore is not suitable in its current configuration for use in scientific or management applications for these species at this time.

Seasonal trends and primary contributors to the low-frequency soundscape of the Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuary.

Passive acoustic monitoring of ocean soundscapes can provide information on ecosystem status for those tasked with protecting marine resources. In 2015, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) established a long-term, continuous, low-frequency (10 Hz-2 kHz) passive acoustic monitoring site in the Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuary (CBNMS), located offshore of the central United States of America (U.S.) west coast, near San Francisco, CA. The California Current flows southward along the coast in this area, supporting a diverse community of marine animals, including several baleen whale species. Acoustic data analysis revealed that both large vessels and vocalizing baleen whales contribute to the ambient soundscape of the CBNMS. Sound levels fluctuated by month with the highest levels in the fall and lowest levels in the summer. Throughout the year, very low-frequency (10-100 Hz) sound levels were most variable. Vessels and whales overlap in their contributions to ambient sound levels within this range, although vessel contributions were more omnipresent, while seasonal peaks were associated with vocalizing whales. This characterization of low-frequency ambient sound levels in the CBNMS establishes initial baselines for an important component of this site's underwater soundscape. Standardized monitoring of soundscapes directly supports NOAA's ability to evaluate and report on conditions within national marine sanctuaries.

Ontogenetic variation in the auditory sensitivity of black sea bass (Centropristis striata) and the implications of anthropogenic sound on behavior and communication.

Black sea bass (Centropristis striata) is an important fish species in both commercial and recreational fisheries of southern New England and the mid-Atlantic Bight. Due to the intense urbanization of these waters, this species is subject to a wide range of anthropogenic noise pollution. Concerns that C. striata are negatively affected by pile driving and construction noise predominate in areas earmarked for energy development. However, as yet, the hearing range of C. striata is unknown, making it hard to evaluate potential risks. This study is a first step in understanding the effects of anthropogenic noise on C. striata by determining the auditory detection bandwidth and thresholds of this species using auditory evoked potentials, creating pressure and acceleration audiograms. These physiological tests were conducted on wild-caught C. striata in three size/age categories. Results showed that juvenile C. striata had the significantly lowest thresholds, with auditory sensitivity decreasing in the larger size classes. Furthermore, C.striata has fairly sensitive sound detection relative to other related species. Preliminary investigations into the mechanisms of their sound detection ability were undertaken with gross dissections and an opportunistic micro-computed tomography image to address the auditory structures including otoliths and swim bladder morphology. Crucially, the auditory detection bandwidth of C. striata, and their most sensitive frequencies, directly overlap with high-amplitude anthropogenic noise pollution such as shipping and underwater construction.

Exploring movement patterns and changing distributions of baleen whales in the western North Atlantic using a decade of passive acoustic data.

Six baleen whale species are found in the temperate western North Atlantic Ocean, with limited information existing on the distribution and movement patterns for most. There is mounting evidence of distributional shifts in many species, including marine mammals, likely because of climate-driven changes in ocean temperature and circulation. Previous acoustic studies examined the occurrence of minke (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) and North Atlantic right whales (NARW; Eubalaena glacialis). This study assesses the acoustic presence of humpback (Megaptera novaeangliae), sei (B. borealis), fin (B. physalus), and blue whales (B. musculus) over a decade, based on daily detections of their vocalizations. Data collected from 2004 to 2014 on 281 bottom-mounted recorders, totaling 35,033 days, were processed using automated detection software and screened for each species' presence. A published study on NARW acoustics revealed significant changes in occurrence patterns between the periods of 2004-2010 and 2011-2014; therefore, these same time periods were examined here. All four species were present from the Southeast United States to Greenland; humpback whales were also present in the Caribbean. All species occurred throughout all regions in the winter, suggesting that baleen whales are widely distributed during these months. Each of the species showed significant changes in acoustic occurrence after 2010. Similar to NARWs, sei whales had higher acoustic occurrence in mid-Atlantic regions after 2010. Fin, blue, and sei whales were more frequently detected in the northern latitudes of the study area after 2010. Despite this general northward shift, all four species were detected less on the Scotian Shelf area after 2010, matching documented shifts in prey availability in this region. A decade of acoustic observations have shown important distributional changes over the range of baleen whales, mirroring known climatic shifts and identifying new habitats that will require further protection from anthropogenic threats like fixed fishing gear, shipping, and noise pollution.

Acoustic crypsis in communication by North Atlantic right whale mother-calf pairs on the calving grounds.

Mammals with dependent young often rely on cryptic behaviour to avoid detection by potential predators. In the mysticetes, large baleen whales, young calves are known to be vulnerable to direct predation from both shark and orca predators; therefore, it is possible that mother-calf pairs may show cryptic behaviours to avoid the attention of predators. Baleen whales primarily communicate through low-frequency acoustic signals, which can travel over long ranges. In this study, we explore the potential for acoustic crypsis, a form of cryptic behaviour to avoid predator detection, in North Atlantic right whale mother-calf pairs. We predicted that mother-calf pairs would either show reduced calling rates, reduced call amplitude or a combination of these behavioural modifications when compared with other demographic groups in the same habitat. Our results show that right whale mother-calf pairs have a strong shift in repertoire usage, significantly reducing the number of higher amplitude, long-distance communication signals they produced when compared with juvenile and pregnant whales in the same habitat. These observations show that right whale mother-calf pairs rely upon acoustic crypsis, potentially to minimize the risk of acoustic eavesdropping by predators.

North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) acoustic behavior on the calving grounds.

Passive acoustic monitoring is a common method for detection of endangered North Atlantic right whales. This study reports on the acoustic behavior of right whales on the winter calving grounds to assess their acoustic detectability in this habitat. In addition to known call types, previously undescribed low amplitude short broadband signals were detected from lactating females with calves. The production of higher amplitude tonal calls occurred at lower rates for lactating females than from other age/sex classes suggesting that passive acoustic monitoring may be less effective in detecting mother-calf pairs in this critical habitat area.

50 to 30-Hz triplet and singlet down sweep vocalizations produced by sei whales (Balaenoptera borealis) in the western North Atlantic Ocean.

The life history, distribution, and acoustic ecology of the sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis) in the western North Atlantic Ocean remains poorly understood. In this study an array of bottom-mounted recorders captured previously undocumented low frequency 50 to 30-Hz triplet and singlet down sweep vocalizations in close association with signature 82 to 34-Hz sei whale down sweep vocalizations. Spatiotemporal correlations of acoustically tracked sei whales confirm the original vocalizations are produced by sei whales. The 50 to 34-Hz down sweep call types were characterized with a suite of five spectral and temporal measurements. The pattern and repetition of the full acoustic suite is suggestive of song structure and warrants further investigation. The discovery of vocalizations attributed specifically to sei whales enables historic acoustic records to be re-evaluated for the presence of this species throughout its range.

Underwater sound from vessel traffic reduces the effective communication range in Atlantic cod and haddock.

Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary is located in Massachusetts Bay off the densely populated northeast coast of the United States; subsequently, the marine inhabitants of the area are exposed to elevated levels of anthropogenic underwater sound, particularly due to commercial shipping. The current study investigated the alteration of estimated effective communication spaces at three spawning locations for populations of the commercially and ecologically important fishes, Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus). Both the ambient sound pressure levels and the estimated effective vocalization radii, estimated through spherical spreading models, fluctuated dramatically during the three-month recording periods. Increases in sound pressure level appeared to be largely driven by large vessel activity, and accordingly exhibited a significant positive correlation with the number of Automatic Identification System tracked vessels at the two of the three sites. The near constant high levels of low frequency sound and consequential reduction in the communication space observed at these recording sites during times of high vocalization activity raises significant concerns that communication between conspecifics may be compromised during critical biological periods. This study takes the first steps in evaluating these animals' communication spaces and alteration of these spaces due to anthropogenic underwater sound.

Long-term passive acoustic recordings track the changing distribution of North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) from 2004 to 2014.

Given new distribution patterns of the endangered North Atlantic right whale (NARW; Eubalaena glacialis) population in recent years, an improved understanding of spatio-temporal movements are imperative for the conservation of this species. While so far visual data have provided most information on NARW movements, passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) was used in this study in order to better capture year-round NARW presence. This project used PAM data from 2004 to 2014 collected by 19 organizations throughout the western North Atlantic Ocean. Overall, data from 324 recorders (35,600 days) were processed and analyzed using a classification and detection system. Results highlight almost year-round habitat use of the western North Atlantic Ocean, with a decrease in detections in waters off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina in summer and fall. Data collected post 2010 showed an increased NARW presence in the mid-Atlantic region and a simultaneous decrease in the northern Gulf of Maine. In addition, NARWs were widely distributed across most regions throughout winter months. This study demonstrates that a large-scale analysis of PAM data provides significant value to understanding and tracking shifts in large whale movements over long time scales.

Using multipath reflections to obtain dive depths of beaked whales from a towed hydrophone array.

Beaked whales are deep divers, emitting echolocation clicks while at depth. Little is known about the dive behavior of most species; however, passive acoustic data collected with towed hydrophone arrays can provide depth information using multipath reflections of clicks coupled with a two-dimensional localization of the individual. Data were collected during a shipboard survey in the western North Atlantic Ocean using a towed linear hydrophone array. Beaked whale tracks were classified as either Cuvier's (Ziphius cavirostris) or Gervais'/True's (Mesoplodon europaeus/Mesoplodon mirus). Weighted species average depths and weighted species standard deviations were 1158 m ± 287 m for Cuvier's (n = 24), and 870 m ± 151 m for Gervais'/True's (n = 15). Depth uncertainties ranged from 3% to 142% of the average depth. Slant ranges were corrected for depth to provide average horizontal perpendicular distance estimates. The average horizontal perpendicular distance distribution exhibited fewer detections in the first bin than the second. This is the first report of dive depths for Gervais'/True's beaked whales and use of this method to obtain depths for beaked whales using a towed linear array.

Natural and anthropogenic events influence the soundscapes of four bays on Hawaii Island.

The soundscapes of four bays along the Kona Coast of Hawaii Island were monitored between January 2011 and March 2013. Equivalent, unweighted sound pressure levels within standard 1/3rd-octave bands (dB re: 1µPa) were calculated for each recording. Sound levels increased at night and were lowest during the daytime when spinner dolphins use the bays to rest. A tsunami provided an opportunity to monitor the soundscape with little anthropogenic component. We detected a decrease in sound levels and variability in one of the busiest bays. During the daytime in the 3.15kHz 1/3rd octave band, we detected 92 loud outliers from vessels, aquaculture, and military mid-frequency active sonar. During one military mid-frequency active sonar event sound levels reached 45.8dB above median ambient noise levels. The differences found in the bays illustrate the importance of understanding soundscapes to effectively manage noise pollution in marine ecosystems.

Beaked whales demonstrate a marked acoustic response to the use of shipboard echosounders.

The use of commercial echosounders for scientific and industrial purposes is steadily increasing. In addition to traditional navigational and fisheries uses, commercial sonars are used extensively for oceanographic research, benthic habitat mapping, geophysical exploration, and ecosystem studies. Little is known about the effects of these acoustic sources on marine animals, though several studies have already demonstrated behavioural responses of cetaceans to shipboard echosounders. Some species of cetaceans are known to be particularly sensitive to acoustic disturbance, including beaked whales. In 2011 and 2013, we conducted cetacean assessment surveys in the western North Atlantic in which a suite of Simrad EK60 echosounders was used to characterize the distribution of prey along survey tracklines. Echosounders were alternated daily between active and passive mode, to determine whether their use affected visual and acoustic detection rates of beaked whales. A total of 256 groups of beaked whales were sighted, and 118 definitive acoustic detections were recorded. Regression analyses using generalized linear models (GLM) found that sea state and region were primary factors in determining visual sighting rates, while echosounder state was the primary driver for acoustic detections, with significantly fewer detections (only 3%) occurring when echosounders were active. These results indicate that beaked whales both detect and change their behaviour in response to commercial echosounders. The mechanism of this response is unknown, but could indicate interruption of foraging activity or vessel avoidance, with potential implications for management and mitigation of anthropogenic impacts.

Passive acoustic monitoring of coastally associated Hawaiian spinner dolphins, Stenella longirostris, ground-truthed through visual surveys.

Effective decision making to protect coastally associated dolphins relies on monitoring the presence of animals in areas that are critical to their survival. Hawaiian spinner dolphins forage at night and rest during the day in shallow bays. Due to their predictable presence, they are targeted by dolphin-tourism. In this study, comparisons of presence were made between passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) and vessel-based visual surveys in Hawaiian spinner dolphin resting bays. DSG-Ocean passive acoustic recording devices were deployed in four bays along the Kona Coast of Hawai'i Island between January 8, 2011 and August 30, 2012. The devices sampled at 80 kHz, making 30-s recordings every four minutes. Overall, dolphins were acoustically detected on 37.1% to 89.6% of recording days depending on the bay. Vessel-based visual surveys overlapped with the PAM surveys on 202 days across the four bays. No significant differences were found between visual and acoustic detections suggesting acoustic surveys can be used as a proxy for visual surveys. Given the need to monitor dolphin presence across sites, PAM is the most suitable and efficient tool for monitoring long-term presence/absence. Concomitant photo-identification surveys are necessary to address changes in abundance over time.

Quantitative analysis of the acoustic repertoire of southern right whales in New Zealand.

Quantitatively describing the acoustic repertoire of a species is important for establishing effective passive acoustic monitoring programs and developing automated call detectors. This process is particularly important when the study site is remote and visual surveys are not cost effective. Little is known about the vocal behavior of southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) in New Zealand. The aim of this study was to describe and quantify their entire vocal repertoire on calving grounds in the sub-Antarctic Auckland Islands. Over three austral winters (2010-2012), 4349 calls were recorded, measured, and classified into 10 call types. The most frequently observed types were pulsive, upcall, and tonal low vocalizations. A long tonal low call (≤15.5 s duration) and a very high call (peak frequency ∼750 Hz) were described for the first time. Random Forest multivariate analysis of 28 measured variables was used to classify calls with a high degree of accuracy (82%). The most important variables for classification were maximum ceiling frequency, number of inflection points, duration, and the difference between the start and end frequency. This classification system proved to be a repeatable, fast, and objective method for categorising right whale calls and shows promise for other vocal taxa.

Effects of duty-cycled passive acoustic recordings on detecting the presence of beaked whales in the northwest Atlantic.

This study investigated the effects of using duty-cycled passive acoustic recordings to monitor the daily presence of beaked whale species at three locations in the northwest Atlantic. Continuous acoustic records were subsampled to simulate duty cycles of 50%, 25%, and 10% and cycle period durations from 10 to 60 min. Short, frequent listening periods were most effective for assessing the daily presence of beaked whales. Furthermore, subsampling at low duty cycles led to consistently greater underestimation of Mesoplodon species than either Cuvier's beaked whales or northern bottlenose whales, leading to a potential bias in estimation of relative species occurrence.

Automatic grunt detector and recognizer for Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua).

Northwest Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) have been heavily overfished in recent years and have not yet recovered. Passive acoustic technology offers a new approach to identify the spatial location of spawning fish, as well as their seasonal and long term persistence in an area. To date, the lack of a species-specific detector has made searching for Atlantic cod grunts in large amounts of passive acoustic data cumbersome. To address this problem, an automatic grunt detection and recognition algorithm that processes yearlong passive acoustic data recordings was designed. The proposed technique is a two-stage hypothesis testing algorithm that includes detecting and recognizing all grunt-like sounds. Test results demonstrated that the algorithm provided a detection probability of 0.93 for grunts with a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) higher than 10 dB, and a detection probability of 0.8 for grunts with the SNR ranging from 3 to 10 dB. This detector is being used to identify cod in current and historical data from U.S. waters. Its use has significantly reduced the time required to find and validate the presence of cod grunts.

Predicting Anthropogenic Noise Contributions to US Waters.

To increase understanding of the potential effects of chronic underwater noise in US waters, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) organized two working groups in 2011, collectively called "CetSound," to develop tools to map the density and distribution of cetaceans (CetMap) and predict the contribution of human activities to underwater noise (SoundMap). The SoundMap effort utilized data on density, distribution, acoustic signatures of dominant noise sources, and environmental descriptors to map estimated temporal, spatial, and spectral contributions to background noise. These predicted soundscapes are an initial step toward assessing chronic anthropogenic noise impacts on the ocean's varied acoustic habitats and the animals utilizing them.