Simultaneous detection of lung fusions using a multiplex RT-PCR next generation sequencing-based approach: a multi-institutional research study.

BACKGROUND: Gene fusion events resulting from chromosomal rearrangements play an important role in initiation of lung adenocarcinoma. The recent association of four oncogenic driver genes, ALK, ROS1, RET, and NTRK1, as lung tumor predictive biomarkers has increased the need for development of up-to-date technologies for detection of these biomarkers in limited amounts of material. METHODS: We describe here a multi-institutional study using the Ion AmpliSeq™ RNA Fusion Lung Cancer Research Panel to interrogate previously characterized lung tumor samples. RESULTS: Reproducibility between laboratories using diluted fusion-positive cell lines was 100%. A cohort of lung clinical research samples from different origins (tissue biopsies, tissue resections, lymph nodes and pleural fluid samples) were used to evaluate the panel. We observed 97% concordance for ALK (28/30 positive; 71/70 negative samples), 95% for ROS1 (3/4 positive; 19/18 negative samples), and 93% for RET (2/1 positive; 13/14 negative samples) between the AmpliSeq assay and other methodologies. CONCLUSION: This methodology enables simultaneous detection of multiple ALK, ROS1, RET, and NTRK1 gene fusion transcripts in a single panel, enhanced by an integrated analysis solution. The assay performs well on limited amounts of input RNA (10 ng) and offers an integrated single assay solution for detection of actionable fusions in lung adenocarcinoma, with potential savings in both cost and turn-around-time compared to the combination of all four assays by other methods.

Efficient Detection of Copy Number Mutations in PMS2 Exons with a Close Homolog.

Detection of 3' PMS2 copy-number mutations that cause Lynch syndrome is difficult because of highly homologous pseudogenes. To improve the accuracy and efficiency of clinical screening for these mutations, we developed a new method to analyze standard capture-based, next-generation sequencing data to identify deletions and duplications in PMS2 exons 9 to 15. The approach captures sequences using PMS2 targets, maps sequences randomly among regions with equal mapping quality, counts reads aligned to homologous exons and introns, and flags read count ratios outside of empirically derived reference ranges. The method was trained on 1352 samples, including 8 known positives, and tested on 719 samples, including 17 known positives. Clinical implementation of the first version of this method detected new mutations in the training (N = 7) and test (N = 2) sets that had not been identified by our initial clinical testing pipeline. The described final method showed complete sensitivity in both sample sets and false-positive rates of 5% (training) and 7% (test), dramatically decreasing the number of cases needing additional mutation evaluation. This approach leveraged the differences between gene and pseudogene to distinguish between PMS2 and PMS2CL copy-number mutations. These methods enable efficient and sensitive Lynch syndrome screening for 3' PMS2 copy-number mutations and may be applied similarly to other genomic regions with highly homologous pseudogenes.

Sporadic microsatellite instability-high colon cancers rarely display immunohistochemical evidence of Wnt signaling activation.

Most sporadic colonic adenocarcinomas are microsatellite stable (MSS) and arise from conventional adenomas by dysregulation of the APC/ß-catenin/Wnt signaling pathway. Sporadic adenocarcinomas with a high degree of microsatellite instability (MSI) likely arise from sessile serrated polyps through the serrated neoplastic pathway. These polyps contain BRAF mutations and are prone to epigenetic methylation that ultimately silences MLH1, leading to MSI and heralding progression of dysplasia to invasive adenocarcinoma. Most investigators believe that these 2 models of cancer progression are mutually exclusive, although recent studies describe Wnt signaling activation in serrated polyps and propose that it plays a role in the development of sporadic colonic adenocarcinomas with MSI. We sought to test this hypothesis by evaluating ß-catenin immunoexpression in 44 sporadic microsatellite unstable adenocarcinomas and 44 MSS colon cancers. We defined sporadic MSI-high carcinomas as those with loss of MLH1 and PMS2 immunostaining and BRAF V600E mutations that occurred in patients 50 years of age or older without a family history of colonic adenocarcinoma or Lynch syndrome. Forty-one (93%) of these carcinomas displayed membranous ß-catenin staining only, compared with 28 (64%) site-matched MSS tumors with abnormal nuclear ß-catenin staining.

Advances in detection of hemoglobinopathies.

Hemoglobin disorders are recognized as one of the most common inherited diseases worldwide. Detecting and characterizing variant hemoglobins and thalassemias depends primarily on clinical laboratory methods. Multiple biophysical, biochemical, and genetic assays are available to provide phenotypic or genotypic evidence of pathology. For many years conventional slab-gel electrophoresis and HPLC were the most commonly utilized laboratory methods. However, the field has rapidly expanded to regularly include capillary zone electrophoresis, molecular assays, and, more recently, mass spectrometric assays. Interpretation of these techniques is, in general, complicated because of the involvement of multiple polymorphic genes. Proper characterization of hemoglobin variants is necessary for diagnosis, primary prevention and genetic counseling for underlying disorders. This review provides an overview of the current hemoglobin analysis techniques, and also discusses technologies that have potential to translate into widespread clinical settings.

Constitutional mismatch repair deficiency presenting in childhood as three simultaneous malignancies.

A 13-year-old child presented with three simultaneous malignancies: glioblastoma multiforme, Burkitt lymphoma, and colonic adenocarcinoma. She was treated for her diseases without success and died 8 months after presentation. Genetic analysis revealed a homozygous mutation in the PMS2 gene, consistent with constitutional mismatch repair deficiency. Her siblings and parents were screened: three of four siblings and both parents were heterozygous for this mutation; the fourth sibling did not have the mutation.

A quantitative allele-specific PCR test for the BRAF V600E mutation using a single heterozygous control plasmid for quantitation: a model for qPCR testing without standard curves.

We describe a novel method for mutant allele quantitation using allele-specific PCR. The method uses a heterozygous plasmid containing one wild-type and one mutant sequence as a calibrator that is run at a single concentration, with each quantitative allele-specific PCR run. PCR data from both calibrator alleles, together with predetermined PCR efficiencies, are used to quantitate the mutant allele burden in unknown specimens. We demonstrate the utility of this method by using it to calculate BRAF V600E allele frequencies in cases of hairy-cell leukemia and show that it generates data that are comparable to those obtained via allele quantitation using conventional standard curves over a wide range of allelic ratios. This method is not subject to errors that may be introduced in traditional standard curves as the result of variations in pippetting or errors in the calculation of the absolute copy numbers of standards. Furthermore, it simplifies the workflow in the clinical laboratory and would provide significant advantages for efforts to standardize clinical quantitative PCR testing.

The frequency of previously undetectable deletions involving 3' Exons of the PMS2 gene.

Lynch syndrome is characterized by mutations in one of four mismatch repair genes, MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, or PMS2. Clinical mutation analysis of these genes includes sequencing of exonic regions and deletion/duplication analysis. However, detection of deletions and duplications in PMS2 has previously been confined to Exons 1-11 due to gene conversion between PMS2 and the pseudogene PMS2CL in the remaining 3' exons (Exons 12-15). We have recently described an MLPA-based method that permits detection of deletions of PMS2 Exons 12-15; however, the frequency of such deletions has not yet been determined. To address this question, we tested for 3' deletions in 58 samples that were reported to be negative for PMS2 mutations using previously available methods. All samples were from individuals whose tumors exhibited loss of PMS2 immunohistochemical staining without concomitant loss of MLH1 immunostaining. We identified seven samples in this cohort with deletions in the 3' region of PMS2, including three previously reported samples with deletions of Exons 13-15 (two samples) and Exons 14-15. Also detected were deletions of Exons 12-15, Exon 13, and Exon 14 (two samples). Breakpoint analysis of the intragenic deletions suggests they occurred through Alu-mediated recombination. Our results indicate that ∼12% of samples suspected of harboring a PMS2 mutation based on immunohistochemical staining, for which mutations have not yet been identified, would benefit from testing using the new methodology.

A PIK3CA pyrosequencing-based assay that excludes pseudogene interference.

Phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase gene (PIK3CA) encodes a lipid kinase that regulates signaling pathways downstream of epidermal growth factor receptor and is mutated in 10% to 30% of colorectal cancers. Activating mutations in this gene up-regulates the AKT signaling pathway, making it a potentially useful therapeutic target. Mutations in PIK3CA are not exclusive of mutations in KRAS, BRAF, or NRAS. We designed a pyrosequencing assay to detect mutations in all three positions of codons 542 and 545 in exon 9 and codon 1047 in exon 20 of this gene. The exon 9 reverse PCR primer was designed to avoid amplifying a pseudogene in chromosome 22 that has >95% homology with exons 9 through 13 in PIK3CA. Two hundred colorectal cancers from FFPE tissue previously characterized for KRAS mutation status were evaluated for PIK3CA mutations. In KRAS-mutated samples, 20% had an additional mutation in PIK3CA. The mutation rate in KRAS wild-type samples was 7.5%. When using our assay, pseudogene was not observed in any of these samples. In addition, pseudogene- and gene-specific amplification was performed on DNA from 40 additional colorectal cancers. Sequencing of these PCR products yielded the expected gene or pseudogene sequence in all cases. Thus, we have developed a PIK3CA pyrosequencing assay capable of detecting mutations in all three positions in the three hot spot codons with no pseudogene interference.

Septin 9 methylated DNA is a sensitive and specific blood test for colorectal cancer.

BACKGROUND: About half of Americans 50 to 75 years old do not follow recommended colorectal cancer (CRC) screening guidelines, leaving 40 million individuals unscreened. A simple blood test would increase screening compliance, promoting early detection and better patient outcomes. The objective of this study is to demonstrate the performance of an improved sensitivity blood-based Septin 9 (SEPT9) methylated DNA test for colorectal cancer. Study variables include clinical stage, tumor location and histologic grade. METHODS: Plasma samples were collected from 50 untreated CRC patients at 3 institutions; 94 control samples were collected at 4 US institutions; samples were collected from 300 colonoscopy patients at 1 US clinic prior to endoscopy. SEPT9 methylated DNA concentration was tested in analytical specimens, plasma of known CRC cases, healthy control subjects, and plasma collected from colonoscopy patients. RESULTS: The improved SEPT9 methylated DNA test was more sensitive than previously described methods; the test had an overall sensitivity for CRC of 90% (95% CI, 77.4% to 96.3%) and specificity of 88% (95% CI, 79.6% to 93.7%), detecting CRC in patients of all stages. For early stage cancer (I and II) the test was 87% (95% CI, 71.1% to 95.1%) sensitive. The test identified CRC from all regions, including proximal colon (for example, the cecum) and had a 12% false-positive rate. In a small prospective study, the SEPT9 test detected 12% of adenomas with a false-positive rate of 3%. CONCLUSIONS: A sensitive blood-based CRC screening test using the SEPT9 biomarker specifically detects a majority of CRCs of all stages and colorectal locations. The test could be offered to individuals of average risk for CRC who are unwilling or unable to undergo colonscopy.

Avoidance of pseudogene interference in the detection of 3' deletions in PMS2.

Lynch syndrome is characterized by mutations in the mismatch repair genes MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, and PMS2. In PMS2, detection of mutations is confounded by numerous pseudogenes. Detection of 3' deletions is particularly complicated by the pseudogene PMS2CL, which has strong similarity to PMS2 exons 9 and 11-15, due to extensive gene conversion. A newly designed multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) kit incorporates probes for variants found in both PMS2 and PMS2CL. This provides detection of deletions, but does not allow localization of deletions to the gene or pseudogene. To address this, we have developed a methodology incorporating reference samples with known copy numbers of variants, and paired MLPA results with sequencing of PMS2 and PMS2CL. We tested a subset of clinically indicated samples for which mutations were either unidentified or not fully characterized using existing methods. We identified eight unrelated patients with deletions encompassing exons 9-15, 11-15, 13-15, 14-15, and 15. By incorporating specific, characterized reference samples and sequencing the gene and pseudogene it is possible to identify deletions in this region of PMS2 and provide clinically relevant results. This methodology represents a significant advance in the diagnosis of patients with Lynch syndrome caused by PMS2 mutations.

Frequency of KRAS, BRAF, and NRAS mutations in colorectal cancer.

Mutational analysis of KRAS codons 12 and 13 is standard for patients with metastatic colorectal cancer since mutations in these codons predict lack of response to anti-EGFR therapies. However, even among patients whose tumors are wildtype for KRAS codons 12 and 13, only a subset respond to therapy. Since additional activating mutations downstream of EGFR may also play a role in treatment resistance, we sought to establish the frequency of these mutations. We evaluated 2121 colorectal tumors for mutations in codons 12 and 13 of the KRAS gene. A subset of these samples, comprised of 513 samples wildtype for KRAS codons 12 and 13, were tested for mutations in codons 61 and 146 of KRAS, codon 600 of BRAF, and codons 12, 13, and 61 of NRAS. Mutation status was determined by targeted pyrosequencing. Mutations in KRAS codon 12 or 13 were identified in 900/2121 (42.4%) samples. Of the 513 wildtype samples tested for additional mutations, 78 samples were mutant for BRAF, 19 for KRAS codon 61, 17 for KRAS codon 146, and 26 for NRAS. In total, 140/513 (27.3%) tumors wildtype for KRAS codons 12 and 13 harbored a mutation in another of the RAS pathway genes. While further study is needed to determine the full therapeutic implications of mutations in these codons, mutational testing of these codons may be useful for identifying a significant proportion of patients who may also be resistant to anti-EGFR therapies.

NF1 exon 22 analysis of individuals with the clinical diagnosis of neurofibromatosis type 1.

Café-au-lait macules are frequently seen in Ras-MAPK pathway disorders and are a cardinal feature of neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1). Most NF1 individuals develop age-related tumorigenic manifestations (e.g., neurofibromas), although individuals with a specific 3-bp deletion in exon 22 of NF1 (c.2970_2972delAAT) have an attenuated phenotype with primarily pigmentary manifestations. Previous reports identify this deletion c.2970_2972delAAT in exon 17 of NF1 using NF Consortium nomenclature. For this report, we elected to use standard NCBI nomenclature, which places this identical deletion within exon 22. SPRED1 mutations cause Legius syndrome, which clinically overlaps with this attenuated NF1 phenotype. In an unselected cohort of 50 individuals who fulfilled NIH clinical diagnostic criteria from an NF Clinic and did not have SPRED1 mutations, we sequenced NF1 exon 22 in order to identify children and adolescents with multiple café-au-lait spots who could be projected to have lower likelihood to develop tumors. Two individuals with NF1 exon 22 mutations were identified: an 11-year-old boy with the c.2970_2972delAAT in-frame deletion and a 4-year-old boy with c.2866dupA. The father of the second patient had an attenuated form of NF1 and showed 24% germline mosaicism of the c.2866dupA mutation in whole blood. These individuals emphasize the need for mutation analysis in some individuals with the clinical diagnosis of NF1 who lack the tumorigenic or classic skeletal abnormalities of NF1. Specifically, with the identification of Legius syndrome, the need to recognize the attenuated phenotype of NF1 mosaicism and confirmation by mutation analysis is increasingly important for appropriate medical management and family counseling.

Clinical analysis of PMS2: mutation detection and avoidance of pseudogenes.

Germline mutation detection in PMS2, one of four mismatch repair genes associated with Lynch syndrome, is greatly complicated by the presence of numerous pseudogenes. We used a modification of a long-range PCR method to evaluate PMS2 in 145 clinical samples. This modification avoids potential interference from the pseudogene PMS2CL by utilizing a long-range product spanning exons 11-15, with the forward primer anchored in exon 10, an exon not shared by PMS2CL. Large deletions were identified by MLPA. Pathogenic PMS2 mutations were identified in 22 of 59 patients whose tumors showed isolated loss of PMS2 by immunohistochemistry (IHC), the IHC profile most commonly associated with a germline PMS2 mutation. Three additional patients with pathogenic mutations were identified from 53 samples without IHC data. Thirty-seven percent of the identified mutations were large deletions encompassing one or more exons. In 27 patients whose tumors showed absence of either another protein or combination of proteins, no pathogenic mutations were identified. We conclude that modified long-range PCR can be used to preferentially amplify the PMS2 gene and avoid pseudogene interference, thus providing a clinically useful germline analysis of PMS2. Our data also support the use of IHC screening to direct germline testing of PMS2.

Quantitative evaluation of CpG island methylation in hyperplastic polyps.

Microsatellite unstable cancers account for up to 15% of sporadic colon cancers and are predominantly located in the proximal colon. These cancers commonly show MLH1 promoter methylation and the CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP). A potential precursor of sporadic unstable cancers, the proximal hyperplastic polyp, is also reported to have CIMP and MLH1 methylation. However, this latter finding is not supported by MLH1 protein expression studies. To help resolve this apparent discrepancy, we determined MLH1 promoter methylation and CIMP by quantitative real-time PCR for 29 proximal hyperplastic polyps, 23 distal hyperplastic polyps, and 11 sporadic microsatellite unstable colon cancers. BRAF V600E mutation status was also determined. Positive methylation was defined as the percentage of methylated reference (PMR) >10. Only 1 of 29 proximal hyperplastic polyps showed positive MLH1 methylation (PMR of 13.0). Neither this polyp nor seven other proximal polyps with PMR values between 0 and 10 showed loss of MLH1 protein expression by immunohistochemistry. In contrast, all 11 microsatellite unstable cancers showed high degrees of MLH1 methylation, with PMR values >30. Fourteen of twenty-nine (48%) of the proximal hyperplastic polyps and 1 of 23 (4%) of the distal hyperplastic polyps showed CIMP (P<0.001). Of the unstable cancers, 10 of 11 showed CIMP. The PMR values in the CIMP-positive proximal hyperplastic polyps were significantly lower than those of the unstable cancers for 4 of the 5 CIMP markers (P<0.05). BRAF V600E mutations were seen in 83% of proximal and 74% of distal hyperplastic polyps. Quantitative analysis of MLH1 methylation does not support earlier reports of MLH1 methylation in proximal hyperplastic polyps. However, these lesions do harbor promoter methylation at other CIMP loci, although at a lower level than that seen in unstable cancers. If these polyps are the precursor for sporadic microsatellite unstable cancers, then MLH1 methylation and higher degrees of promoter methylation in general occur at a later stage of carcinogenesis.

Confirmation of single exon deletions in MLH1 and MSH2 using quantitative polymerase chain reaction.

Deletions of one or more exons in the mismatch repair genes MLH1 and MSH2 have been implicated in a significant fraction of hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC or Lynch syndrome). Multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) detection of deletions of multiple sequential exons is widely accepted; however, there is concern over the reliability of MLPA results showing single exon deletions. Given the clinical implications of a diagnosis of Lynch syndrome, it is important to use an alternative technique to confirm single exon deletions. To verify single exon deletions, we developed a SYBR Green-based quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. Clinical DNA samples containing deletions in 33 of the 35 exons in MLH1 and MSH2, previously screened by MLPA, were evaluated by quantitative PCR. Gene dosage ratios were determined by both the relative standard curve method and by the 2(-DeltaDeltaC(T)) method. Deleted exons had gene dosage ratios of 0.4 to 0.6, while nondeleted exons exhibited ratios of 0.8-1.3. We found 100% concordance between the quantitative PCR and MLPA results, including confirmation of all single exon deletions. The 2(-DeltaDeltaC(T)) method was as accurate as using standard curves for the calculation of ratios. Single exon deletions in MLH1 and MSH2 can be verified using quantitative PCR. Assays using this method are simple to design and easy to perform, making them ideal for confirmatory testing.

Comprehensive identification of proteins in Hodgkin lymphoma-derived Reed-Sternberg cells by LC-MS/MS.

Mass spectrometry-based proteomics in conjunction with liquid chromatography and bioinformatics analysis provides a highly sensitive and high-throughput approach for the identification of proteins. Hodgkin lymphoma is a form of malignant lymphoma characterized by the proliferation of Reed-Sternberg cells and background reactive lymphocytes. Comprehensive analysis of proteins expressed and released by Reed-Sternberg cells would assist in the discovery of potential biomarkers and improve our understanding of its pathogenesis. The subcellular proteome of the three cellular compartments from L428 and KMH2 Hodgkin lymphoma-derived cell lines were fractionated, and analyzed by reverse-phase liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Additionally, proteins released by Hodgkin lymphoma-derived L428 cells were extracted from serum-free culture media and analyzed. Peptide spectra were analyzed using TurboSEQUEST against the UniProt protein database (5.26.05; 188 712 entries). A subset of the identified proteins was validated by Western blot analysis, immunofluorescence microscopy and immunohistochemistry. A total of 1945 proteins were identified with 785 from the cytosolic fraction, 305 from the membrane fraction, 441 from the nuclear fraction and 414 released proteins using a minimum of two peptide identifications per protein and an error rate of <5.0%. Identification of proteins from diverse functional groups reflected the functional complexity of the Reed-Sternberg proteome. Proteins with previously reported oncogenic function in other cancers and from signaling pathways implicated in Hodgkin lymphoma were identified. Selected proteins without previously demonstrated expression in Hodgkin lymphoma were validated by Western blot analysis (B-RAF, Erb-B3), immunofluorescence microscopy (Axin1, Tenascin-X, Mucin-2) and immunohistochemistry using a tissue microarray (BRAF, PIM1). This study represents the first comprehensive inventory of proteins expressed by Reed-Sternberg cells of Hodgkin lymphoma and demonstrates the utility of combining cellular subfractionation, protein precipitation, tandem mass spectrometry and bioinformatics analysis for comprehensive identification of proteins that may represent potential biomarkers of the disease.

Analytical characteristics of cleavable isotope-coded affinity tag-LC-tandem mass spectrometry for quantitative proteomic studies.

Quantitative proteomic studies using cleavable isotope-coded affinity tags (cICAT) in concert with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) permit unbiased comparisons between biologically distinct samples. We sought to determine the analytical characteristics of cICAT-based studies by examining the cumulative results of multiple, separate cICAT-based experiments involving human lymphoma-derived cells. We found that the number of identified proteins increased with larger numbers of fractions analyzed. The majority of proteins were identified by single peptides. Only 24 to 41% of the peptides contained cysteine residues, but 85% of the cysteine-containing peptides yielded quantification data. Approximately 28% of all identified proteins yielded quantification data, with 57% of these being differentially expressed by at least 1.5-fold. The quantification ratios of peptides for proteins with multiple quantified peptides were concordant in trend in 87% of instances. cICAT-labeled peptides identified proteins in all subcellular compartments without significant bias. Analysis of the flow-through fraction did not increase the number of peptides identified per protein. Our studies indicate that cICAT-LC-MS/MS yields quantifications primarily based on single peptides, and analysis of flow-through peptides does not contribute signifi-cantly to the results. Nevertheless, identifications based on single cICAT-labeled peptides with tryptic ends provide sufficiently reliable protein identifications and quantification information in cICAT-LC-MS/MS-based proteomic studies.

Identification of proteins released by follicular lymphoma-derived cells using a mass spectrometry-based approach.

The recent advent of mass spectrometry-based methodologies for the analysis of complex protein mixtures opens new opportunities for the discovery of biomarkers that may aid in the diagnostic work-up of cancer. Follicular lymphoma (FL) is the most common form of low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma in the Western Hemisphere. Identification of tumor markers that facilitate early disease detection would be a significant advance in the management of FL. We have employed a strategy that entailed propagation of a follicular-derived cell line in serum-free media, protein extraction, and reverse-phase liquid chromatography, with subsequent electrospray ionization and tandem mass spectrometry analysis for the identification of proteins that are released by FL. Using a two-peptide minimum per protein and standard criteria, 209 proteins (5.6% maximum predicted error rate) released from the FL cells were identified. The released proteins included several growth factors, cytokines, acute phase reactants and cellular components previously known to be present in FL cells. Importantly, a greater proportion of proteins previously unassociated with FL were identified with high statistical confidence. Our studies provide a list of proteins, which may be candidates for early screening, diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring of patients with a suspected or biopsy-confirmed diagnosis of FL.

Identification of proteins from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded cells by LC-MS/MS.

There exists a need for robust approaches for tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS)-based identification of proteins in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) material. We demonstrate herein the identification of proteins in FFPE material using enzymatic cleavage for extraction of peptides from the FFPE specimen and liquid chromatography (LC) followed by MS/MS. We identified 324 proteins from a 3-year-old FFPE cell-block of a human lymphoma cell line. The identified proteins were assigned to the membrane, cytosol and nucleus, with diverse cellular functions. The results were comparable to those obtained with lysates from a fresh specimen of the lymphoma cell line. Western blotting analysis and immunofluorescence microscopy confirmed the expression of selected proteins. The functional significance of one protein (PKC eta) was validated using a PKC inhibitory peptide which resulted in lymphoma cell death in vitro. The ability to identify proteins from FFPE specimens has significant implications for MS/MS-based proteomics of vast repositories of archival primary tissue samples for disease-related discovery research.

High-resolution melting analysis for detection of internal tandem duplications.

High-resolution melting analysis (HRMA) is a recently introduced closed-tube fluorescence-based method for rapid mutation screening and detection. However, all of the targets by which this technique has been validated thus far have had single-base substitutions, deletions, or similarly small mutational deviations from the wild-type sequence. In the current study, we sought to determine the feasibility of utilization of HRMA for the detection of larger sequence aberrations, using internal tandem duplications (ITD) in the juxtamembrane domain of the FLT3 gene as a model system. This gene is important in the growth and differentiation of hematopoietic progenitors and ITDs in this gene have been identified in a subset of poor-prognosis acute myelogenous leukemias (AML). DNA extracted from 62 AML samples was analyzed on a prototype high-resolution melting instrument. The samples interrogated for the FLT3 ITDs were subjected to post-amplification denaturation with frequent and regular fluorescence acquisition. The fluorescence versus temperature melting graphs generated were analyzed for deviation from the profiles reproducibly obtained for the wild-type samples. Results by HRMA were compared to results obtained using capillary electrophoresis-based fragment analysis, temperature gradient capillary electrophoresis detection, and sequencing of ITDs. FLT3 ITDs were detected in 13 of 62 AML samples with 100% concordance between the detection methods. This study demonstrates the utility of HRMA to rapidly and accurately screen samples for the presence of large sequence aberrations including FLT3 ITDs.