RESUMEN
The concentration of environmental pollutants needs to be monitored constantly by reliable analytical methods since they pose a public health risk. Developing simple and affordable sensors for such pollutants can allow for large-scale monitoring economically. Here, we develop a simple electrochemical sensor for sulfanilamide (SFD) quantification using a phenolic resin substrate and a CO2 laser to pyrolyze the sensor geometry over the substrate. The sensors are modified with carbon nanotubes via a simple drop-casting procedure. The carbon nanotube loading effect the electrochemical performance toward a redox probe and analytical performance for SFD detection is investigated, showing no net benefit beyond 1 mg L-1 of carbon nanotubes. The effects of the modification on the SFD oxidation are shown to be more than just an electrode area effect and possibly attributed to the fast electron transfer kinetics of the carbon nanotubes. SFD detection is performed at small solution volumes under static (800 µL) and hydrodynamic conditions (3 mL) in a fully integrated, miniaturized batch-injection analyses cell. Both methods have a similar linear range from 10.0 to 115.0 µmol L-1 and high selectivity for SFD determination. Both systems are used to quantify SFD in real samples as a proof of concept, showcasing the proposed device's applicability as a sensor for environmental and public health monitoring of SFD.
RESUMEN
A simple fabrication method to make electrochemical sensors is reported. The electrodes were fabricated with a commercial filament based on polylactic acid and carbon black (PLA/CB). They were engineered with a three-dimensional (3D) printing pen and poly(methyl methacrylate) template. The optimization parameters included the thickness and diameters of the electrodes. The electrode diameter was restricted by the 3D printing pen's nozzle dimension, and larger diameters generated small cracks on the electrode surface, compromising their analytical signal. The electrode thickness can increase the electrical resistance, affecting their electrochemical response. The fabrication showed reproducibility (RSD = 4%). The electrode surface was easily renewed by sanding the electrodes, making them reusable. Additionally, the proposed sensor provided comparable electrochemical responses over traditional glassy carbon electrodes. Moreover, no (electro)chemical surface treatment was required for sensing applications due to the compromise between the thickness and diameters of the electrodes, effectively translating the filaments' electrical properties to resulting materials. The electrodes' analytical performance was shown for organic and inorganic species, including paraquat, Pb2+, and caffeic acid. As proof of concept, the analytical applicability was demonstrated for total polyphenolic quantification in tea samples. Therefore, this work provides an alternative to fabricating miniaturized electrodes, bringing valuable insights into PLA/CB 3D-printed sensors and opening possibilities for designing electrode arrays. Moreover, the proposed electrodes are promising platforms for paper-based microfluidic systems.
RESUMEN
Paper-based analytical devices (PADs) are powerful platforms for point-of-need testing since they are inexpensive devices fabricated in different shapes and miniaturized sizes, ensuring better portability. Additionally, the readout and detection systems can be accomplished with portable devices, allying with the features of both systems. These devices have been introduced as promising analytical platforms to meet critical demands involving rapid, reliable, and simple testing. They have been applied to monitor species related to environmental, health, and food issues. Herein, an outline of chronological events involving PADs is first reported. This work also introduces insights into fundamental parameters to engineer new analytical platforms, including the paper type and device operation. The discussions involve the main analytical techniques used as detection systems, such as colorimetry, fluorescence, and electrochemistry. It also showed recent advances involving PADs, especially combining optical and electrochemical detection into a single device. Dual/combined detection systems can overcome individual barriers of the analytical techniques, making possible simultaneous determinations, or enhancing the devices' sensitivity and/or selectivity. In addition, this review reports on distance-based detection, which is also considered a trend in analytical chemistry. Distance-based detection offers instrument-free analyses and avoids user interpretation errors, which are outstanding features for analyses at the point of need, especially for resource-limited regions. Finally, this review provides a critical overview of the practical specifications of the recent analytical platforms involving PADs, demonstrating their challenges. Therefore, this work can be a highly useful reference for new research and innovation.
RESUMEN
The combination of CO2 laser ablation and electrochemical surface treatments is demonstrated to improve the electrochemical performance of carbon black/polylactic acid (CB/PLA) 3D-printed electrodes through the growth of flower-like Na2O nanostructures on their surface. Scanning electron microscopy images revealed that the combination of treatments ablated the electrode's polymeric layer, exposing a porous surface where Na2O flower-like nanostructures were formed. The electrochemical performance of the fabricated electrodes was measured by the reversibility of the ferri/ferrocyanide redox couple presenting a significantly improved performance compared with electrodes treated by only one of the steps. Electrodes treated by the combined method also showed a better electrochemical response for tyrosine oxidation. These electrodes were used as a non-enzymatic tyrosine sensor for quantification in human urine samples. Two fortified urine samples were analyzed, and the recovery values were 106 and 109%. The LOD and LOQ for tyrosine determination were 0.25 and 0.83 µmol L-1, respectively, demonstrating that the proposed devices are suitable sensors for analyses of biological samples, even at low analyte concentrations.
