Trail Making Test: Normative data for the Latin American Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

OBJECTIVE: To generate normative data for the Trail Making Test (TMT) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. METHOD: The sample consisted of 3,337 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the TMT as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. The TMT-A and TMT-B scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. RESULTS: The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age on both scores, such that as children needed less time to complete the test while they become older. TMT-A scores were affected by age2 for all countries except, Cuba, Guatemala, and Puerto. TMT-B scores were affected by age2 for all countries except, Guatemala and Puerto Rico. Models indicated that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years of education needed less time to complete the test compared to children whose parent(s) had a MLPE ≤12 years for Mexico and Paraguay in TMT-A scores; and Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, and Spain for TMT-B scores. Sex affected TMT-A scores for Chile, Cuba, Mexico, and Peru, in that boys needed less time to complete the test than girls. Sex did not affect TMT-B scores. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate approach to interpret the TMT in pediatric populations.

Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

OBJECTIVE: To generate normative data for the Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. METHOD: The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the M-WCST as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. Number of categories, perseverative errors, and total error scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. RESULTS: The final multiple linear regression models indicated main effects for age on all scores, such that the number of categories correct increased and total number of perseverative errors and total number of errors decrease linearly as a function of age. Age2 had a significant effect in Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, and Spain for numbers of categories; a significant effect for number of perseverative errors in Chile, Cuba, Mexico, and Spain; and a significant effect for number of total errors in Chile, Cuba, Peru, and Spain. Models showed an effect for MLPE in Cuba (total errors), Ecuador (categories and total errors), Mexico (all scores), Paraguay (perseverative errors and total error), and Spain (categories and total errors). Sex affected number of total errors for Ecuador. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate way to interpret the M-WCST with pediatric populations.

Symbol Digit Modalities Test: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

OBJECTIVE: To generate normative data for the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. METHOD: The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the SDMT as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. SDMT scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. RESULTS: The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age in all countries, such that score increased linearly as a function of age. In addition, age2 had a significant effect in all countries, except in Honduras and Puerto Rico. Models indicated that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years of education obtained higher score compared to children whose parent(s) had a MLPE ≤12 years for Chile, Guatemala, Mexico, and Spain. Sex affected SDMT score for Paraguay and Spain. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate interpretation of the SDMT with pediatric populations.

Stroop Color-Word Interference Test: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

OBJECTIVE: To generate normative data for the Stroop Word-Color Interference test in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. METHOD: The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the Stroop Word-Color Interference test as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. The Stroop Word, Stroop Color, Stroop Word-Color, and Stroop Interference scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. RESULTS: The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age on all scores, except on Stroop Interference for Guatemala, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. Age2 affected Stroop Word scores for all countries, Stroop Color scores for Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Spain; Stroop Word-Color scores for Ecuador, Mexico, and Paraguay; and Stroop Interference scores for Cuba, Guatemala, and Spain. MLPE affected Stroop Word scores for Chile, Mexico, and Puerto Rico; Stroop Color scores for Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Spain; Stroop Word-Color scores for Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Puerto Rico and Spain; and Stroop-Interference scores for Ecuador, Mexico, and Spain. Sex affected Stroop Word scores for Spain, Stroop Color scores for Mexico, and Stroop Interference for Honduras. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate approach to interpret the Stroop Word-Color Interference test in pediatric populations.

Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure - copy and immediate recall (3 minutes): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric populations.

OBJECTIVE: To generate normative data for the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. METHOD: The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the ROCF as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. The ROCF copy and immediate recall (3 minutes) scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. RESULTS: The final multiple linear regression models showed main effect for age on copy and immediate recall scores, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. Age2 affected ROCF copy score for all countries, except Puerto Rico; and ROCF immediate recall scores for all countries, except Chile, Guatemala, Honduras, Paraguay, and Puerto Rico. Models indicated that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years obtained higher scores compared to children whose parent(s) had a MLPE≤12 years for Chile, Puerto Rico, and Spain in the ROCF copy, and Paraguay and Spain for the ROCF immediate recall. Sex affected ROCF copy and immediate recall score for Chile and Puerto Rico with girls scoring higher than boys. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate approach to interpret the ROCF Test in pediatric populations.

Self-regulation and treatment retention in cocaine dependent individuals: a longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to explore the association between baseline executive functioning and treatment outcome in Therapeutic Communities (TCs). METHODS: We used a longitudinal descriptive design: a baseline neuropsychological assessment was performed within the first 30 days of treatment in TCs. Once participants finished or abandoned treatment, the information about time of stay in treatment was computed for each individual. The study was conducted across six TCs located in the region of Andalusia (Spain): Cartaya, Almonte, Mijas, Los Palacios, La Línea, and Tarifa. Participants were 131 patients with cocaine dependence who initiated and finished treatment in TCs between January 2009 and December 2010 (2 years). Cognitive assessment was composed of general measures of executive functioning: Letter Number Sequencing (working memory) and Similarities (reasoning), and executive tasks sensitive to ventromedial prefrontal cortex dysfunction, including the Delis-Kaplan Stroop test (inhibition/cognitive switching), the Revised-Strategy Application Test (strategy application/multitasking), and the Iowa Gambling Task (decision-making). The outcome measure was retention, defined as time in TC treatment (number of days). RESULTS: Poor executive functioning significantly predicted shorter treatment retention in cocaine dependent individuals on TC residential treatment (14% of explained variance). Reduced performance on the R-SAT, a multitasking test taxing the ability to develop and apply the best strategy to organize multiple sub-routine tasks in order to achieve a long-term goal, was the most powerful predictor of treatment retention. CONCLUSIONS: Self-regulation deficits predict the capacity to remain in residential treatment among cocaine dependents.

Análisis de las diferencias en el perfil y patrón de consumo de drogas de hombres y mujeres que asisten a fiestas rave / Analysis of the differences in the profile and drug use patterns between male and female who attend raves

Objetivo. Estudios poblacionales muestran un consumo diferencial de drogas entre hombres y mujeres. Algunos trabajos han apuntado hacia las raves como una cultura andrógina donde las diferencias de género se diluyen. No obstante, las evidencias empíricas sobre el patrón diferencial según género en este contexto son escasas. Este estudio tiene como objetivo analizar las diferencias en el patrón de consumo de drogas y el perfil sociodemográfico de hombres y mujeres que asisten a fiestas rave. Material y método. Se entrevistó a 252 asistentes a fiestas rave en Andalucía (España). Se administró un cuestionario en el que se recogía información sobre el patrón de consumo de 15 drogas distintas y el perfil sociodemográfico. Resultados. Los resultados muestran un elevado consumo y policonsumo de drogas entre los participantes, no encontrándose diferencias significativas en el patrón de consumo y el perfil sociodemográfico según el género. Como media, los hombres han consumido alguna vez 9,9 drogas frente a 9,5 las mujeres. En el último mes, 7,3 frente a 6,9, y en la última rave, 5 frente a 4,9. Conclusiones. Al contrario de lo que sucede en la población general, donde la prevalencia de consumo de drogas de los hombres es superior a la de las mujeres, este trabajo no ha encontrado diferencias significativas en el patrón de consumo entre ambos géneros. Este hecho debe ser considerado para el diseño de estrategias preventivas de reducción de riesgos y daños en este colectivo (AU)

Objective. Population studies show differential drug consumption between male and female. Some studies point to rave as an androgynous culture, where gender differences disappear. Nonetheless, in this context, empirical evidences on differential patterns of drug use by gender are scarce. The purpose of this study is to analyze differences in drug use patterns and sociodemographic profile between male and female who attend raves. Material and method. Two hundred and fifty-two people who went to raves in Andalucía (Spain) were interviewed. It was administered a questionnaire to collect information on use patterns of 15 different drugs and sociodemographic profile. Results. Results show a high substance and polysubstance use between ravers. No significant differences by gender were found in drug use patterns or sociodemographic profile. The average number of drug consumed for male "some time in their lives" were 9.9, versus 9.5 for female. In the last month, 7.3 versus 6.9, and last rave, 5 versus 4.9. Conclusions. Opposite to what it happens in general population, where drug use prevalence of male is higher than female, this study haven´t found significant differences by gender. This fact must be considered in order to design risk and harm reduction preventive strategies (AU)

Diagnóstico del trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad (TDAH) en pacientes adultos con dependencia de cocaína: utilidad de los nuevos síntomas de funcionamiento ejecutivo de Barkley / Diagnosing adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in patients with cocaine dependence: usefulness of new Barkley executive function symptoms

Objetivos: Estimación de la prevalencia del trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad (TDAH) del adulto en una muestra de dependientes de cocaína y evaluación de la utilidad de los síntomas de funcionamiento ejecutivo de Barkley para diferenciar entre pacientes dependientes de cocaína con y sin TDAH. Métodos: Diseño observacional transversal. Se evaluó un total de 70 sujetos dependientes de cocaína que ingresaron para tratamiento en una comunidad terapéutica. Los sujetos seleccionados fueron citados para una entrevista cara a cara entre los días 15.º y 20.º del ingreso. Se utilizó una técnica de muestreo consecutivo no aleatorio. Se reclutó a los sujetos según acudían a la comunidad terapéutica y cumplían los criterios de selección. El instrumento de medida empleado para diagnosticar TDAH en la edad adulta fue la Conners' Adult ADHD Diagnostic Interview for DSM-IV (CAADID). Los trastornos psiquiátricos comórbidos fueron evaluados según criterios DSM-IV-TR mediante la versión española de la entrevista Psychiatric Research Interview for Substance and Mental Disorders (PRISM-IV). Para la evaluación del "funcionamiento ejecutivo" empleamos el Current Behavior Scale Self-Report de Russell A. Barkley. Resultados: La prevalencia de TDAH observada en nuestra muestra fue del 14,3 % (intervalo de confianza [IC] 95 %: 6,1-22,5). Las puntuaciones medias en todos los ítems de la escala de Barkley son superiores en el grupo de pacientes diagnosticados de TDAH y dependencia a la cocaína, en comparación con los sujetos que sólo presentan dependencia a la esta sustancia, con diferencias estadísticamente significativas. Conclusiones: La prevalencia observada de TDAH en nuestra muestra fue elevada y se sitúa dentro del rango de las encontradas por otros autores en muestras similares. Los datos del estudio apoyan la teoría de Barkley en esta población (AU)

Objectives: Estimation of the prevalence of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in a sample of cocaine users treated in a therapeutic community and evaluation of the usefulness of Barkley executive function symptoms in differentiating cocaine-dependent patients with and without ADHD. Methods: A transversal observation design was used. A total of 70 cocaine-dependent subjects who were admitted for treatment in a therapeutic community were assessed. Non-random consecutive sampling was used, recruiting the subjects as they arrived at the therapeutic community and met the selection criteria. Subjects included in the study were given an appointment for a face-to-face interview from 15 to 20 days after admission. The measurement instrument used for diagnosing adult ADHD was Conners' Adult ADHD Diagnostic Interview for DSM-IV (CAADID). Comorbid psychiatric disorders were evaluated according to DSM-IV-TR criteria using the Spanish version of the Psychiatric Research Interview for Substance and Mental Disorders (PRISM-IV). For assessment of the "executive function", we used the Current Behavior Scale Self-Report by Russell A. Barkley. Results: The prevalence of ADHD observed in our sample was 14.3 % (confidence interval [CI] 95 %: 6.1-22.5). The mean scores on all the items on the Barkley scale are higher in the group of cocaine-dependent patients diagnosed with ADHD than for subjects who were cocaine-dependent only by a statistically significant difference. Conclusions: The high prevalence of ADHD observed in our sample was within the range found by other authors in similar samples. The study data support Barkley's theory in this population (AU)