Targeting macrophages with multifunctional nanoparticles to detect and prevent atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.

Despite the emergence of novel diagnostic, pharmacological, interventional and prevention strategies, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Nanoparticle-based platforms encompass diverse imaging, delivery and pharmacological properties that provide novel opportunities for refining diagnostic and therapeutic interventions for atherosclerosis at the cellular and molecular level. Macrophages play a critical role in atherosclerosis and therefore represent an important disease-related diagnostic and therapeutic target, especially given their inherent ability for passive and active nanoparticle uptake. In this review, we discuss an array of inorganic, carbon-based and lipid-based nanoparticles that provide magnetic, radiographic and fluorescent imaging capabilities for a range of highly promising research and clinical applications in atherosclerosis. We discuss the design of nanoparticles that target a range of macrophage-related functions such as lipoprotein oxidation, cholesterol efflux, vascular inflammation and defective efferocytosis. We also provide examples of nanoparticle systems that were developed for other pathologies such as cancer and highlight their potential for repurposing in cardiovascular disease. Finally, we discuss the current state of play and the future of theranostic nanoparticles. Whilst this is not without its challenges, the array of multifunctional capabilities that are possible in nanoparticle design ensures they will be part of the next frontier of exciting new therapies that simultaneously improve the accuracy of plaque diagnosis and more effectively reduce atherosclerosis with limited side effects.

Biological Sensing of Nitric Oxide in Macrophages and Atherosclerosis Using a Ruthenium-Based Sensor.

Macrophage-derived nitric oxide (NO) plays a critical role in atherosclerosis and presents as a potential biomarker. We assessed the uptake, distribution, and NO detection capacity of an irreversible, ruthenium-based, fluorescent NO sensor (Ru-NO) in macrophages, plasma, and atherosclerotic plaques. In vitro, incubation of Ru-NO with human THP1 monocytes and THP1-PMA macrophages caused robust uptake, detected by Ru-NO fluorescence using mass-cytometry, confocal microscopy, and flow cytometry. THP1-PMA macrophages had higher Ru-NO uptake (+13%, p < 0.05) than THP1 monocytes with increased Ru-NO fluorescence following lipopolysaccharide stimulation (+14%, p < 0.05). In mice, intraperitoneal infusion of Ru-NO found Ru-NO uptake was greater in peritoneal CD11b+F4/80+ macrophages (+61%, p < 0.01) than CD11b+F4/80− monocytes. Infusion of Ru-NO into Apoe−/− mice fed high-cholesterol diet (HCD) revealed Ru-NO fluorescence co-localised with atherosclerotic plaque macrophages. When Ru-NO was added ex vivo to aortic cell suspensions from Apoe−/− mice, macrophage-specific uptake of Ru-NO was demonstrated. Ru-NO was added ex vivo to tail-vein blood samples collected monthly from Apoe−/− mice on HCD or chow. The plasma Ru-NO fluorescence signal was higher in HCD than chow-fed mice after 12 weeks (37.9%, p < 0.05). Finally, Ru-NO was added to plasma from patients (N = 50) following clinically-indicated angiograms. There was lower Ru-NO fluorescence from plasma from patients with myocardial infarction (−30.7%, p < 0.01) than those with stable coronary atherosclerosis. In conclusion, Ru-NO is internalised by macrophages in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo, can be detected in atherosclerotic plaques, and generates measurable changes in fluorescence in murine and human plasma. Ru-NO displays promising utility as a sensor of atherosclerosis.

Cardiovascular bioimaging of nitric oxide: Achievements, challenges, and the future.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a ubiquitous, volatile, cellular signaling molecule that operates across a wide physiological concentration range (pM-µM) in different tissues. It is a highly diffusible messenger and intermediate in various metabolic pathways. NO plays a pivotal role in maintaining optimum cardiovascular function, particularly by regulating vascular tone and blood flow. This review highlights the need for accurate, real-time bioimaging of NO in clinical diagnostic, therapeutic, monitoring, and theranostic applications within the cardiovascular system. We summarize electrochemical, optical, and nanoscale sensors that allow measurement and imaging of NO, both directly and indirectly via surrogate measurements. The physical properties of NO render it difficult to accurately measure in tissues using direct methods. There are also significant limitations associated with the NO metabolites used as surrogates to indirectly estimate NO levels. All these factors added to significant variability in the measurement of NO using available methodology have led to a lack of sensors and imaging techniques of clinical applicability in relevant vascular pathologies such as atherosclerosis and ischemic heart disease. Challenges in applying current methods to biomedical and clinical translational research, including the wide physiological range of NO and limitations due to the characteristics and toxicity of the sensors are discussed, as are potential targets and modifications for future studies. The development of biocompatible nanoscale sensors for use in combination with existing clinical imaging modalities provides a feasible opportunity for bioimaging NO within the cardiovascular system.

Electrospun Nanodiamond-Silk Fibroin Membranes: A Multifunctional Platform for Biosensing and Wound-Healing Applications.

Next generation wound care technology capable of diagnosing wound parameters, promoting healthy cell growth, and reducing pathogenic infections noninvasively would provide patients with an improved standard of care and accelerated wound repair. Temperature is one of the indicating biomarkers specific to chronic wounds. This work reports a hybrid, multifunctional optical material platform-nanodiamond (ND)-silk membranes as biopolymer dressings capable of temperature sensing and promoting wound healing. The hybrid structure was fabricated through electrospinning, and 3D submicron fibrous membranes with high porosity were formed. Silk fibers are capable of compensating for the lack of an extracellular matrix at the wound site, supporting the wound-healing process. Negatively charged nitrogen vacancy (NV-) color centers in NDs exhibit optically detected magnetic resonance (ODMR) and act as nanoscale thermometers. This can be exploited to sense temperature variations associated with the presence of infection or inflammation in a wound, without physically removing the dressing. Our results show that the presence of NDs in the hybrid ND-silk membranes improves the thermal stability of silk fibers. NV- color centers in NDs embedded in silk fibers exhibit well-retained fluorescence and ODMR. Using the NV- centers as fluorescent nanoscale thermometers, we achieved temperature sensing in 25-50 °C, including the biologically relevant temperature window, for cell-grown ND-silk membranes. An enhancement (∼1.5× on average) in the temperature sensitivity of the NV- centers was observed for the hybrid materials. The hybrid membranes were further tested in vivo in a murine wound-healing model and demonstrated biocompatibility and equivalent wound closure rates as the control wounds. Additionally, the hybrid ND-silk membranes exhibited selective antifouling and biocidal propensity toward Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli, while no effect was observed on Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus.

A Novel Ruthenium-based Molecular Sensor to Detect Endothelial Nitric Oxide.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a key regulator of endothelial cell and vascular function. The direct measurement of NO is challenging due to its short half-life, and as such surrogate measurements are typically used to approximate its relative concentrations. Here we demonstrate that ruthenium-based [Ru(bpy)2(dabpy)]2+ is a potent sensor for NO in its irreversible, NO-bound active form, [Ru(bpy)2(T-bpy)]2+. Using spectrophotometry we established the sensor's ability to detect and measure soluble NO in a concentration-dependent manner in cell-free media. Endothelial cells cultured with acetylcholine or hydrogen peroxide to induce endogenous NO production showed modest increases of 7.3 ± 7.1% and 36.3 ± 25.0% respectively in fluorescence signal from baseline state, while addition of exogenous NO increased their fluorescence by 5.2-fold. The changes in fluorescence signal were proportionate and comparable against conventional NO assays. Rabbit blood samples immediately exposed to [Ru(bpy)2(dabpy)]2+ displayed 8-fold higher mean fluorescence, relative to blood without sensor. Approximately 14% of the observed signal was NO/NO adduct-specific. Optimal readings were obtained when sensor was added to freshly collected blood, remaining stable during subsequent freeze-thaw cycles. Clinical studies are now required to test the utility of [Ru(bpy)2(dabpy)]2+ as a sensor to detect changes in NO from human blood samples in cardiovascular health and disease.

Rationally Designed Probe for Reversible Sensing of Zinc and Application in Cells.

Biologically compatible fluorescent ion sensors, particularly those that are reversible, represent a key tool for answering a range of fundamental biological questions. We report a rationally designed probe with a 6'-fluoro spiropyran scaffold (5) for the reversible sensing of zinc (Zn2+) in cells. The 6'-fluoro substituent overcomes several limitations normally associated with spiropyran-based sensors to provide an improved signal-to-background ratio and faster photoswitching times in aqueous solution. In vitro studies were performed with 5 and the 6'-nitro analogues (6) in HEK 293 and endothelial cells. The new spiropyran (5) can detect exogenous Zn2+ inside both cell types and without affecting the proliferation of endothelial cells. Studies were also performed on dying HEK 293 cells, with results demonstrating the ability of the key compound to detect endogenous Zn2+ efflux from cells undergoing apoptosis. Biocompatibility and photoswitching of 5 were demonstrated within endothelial cells but not with 6, suggesting the future applicability of sensor 5 to study intracellular Zn2+ efflux in these systems.

Impact of pulmonary exposure to gold core silver nanoparticles of different size and capping agents on cardiovascular injury.

BACKGROUND: The uses of engineered nanomaterials have expanded in biomedical technology and consumer manufacturing. Furthermore, pulmonary exposure to various engineered nanomaterials has, likewise, demonstrated the ability to exacerbate cardiac ischemia reperfusion (I/R) injury. However, the influence of particle size or capping agent remains unclear. In an effort to address these influences we explored response to 2 different size gold core nanosilver particles (AgNP) with two different capping agents at 2 different time points. We hypothesized that a pulmonary exposure to AgNP induces cardiovascular toxicity influenced by inflammation and vascular dysfunction resulting in expansion of cardiac I/R Injury that is sensitive to particle size and the capping agent. METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to 200 µg of 20 or 110 nm polyvinylprryolidone (PVP) or citrate capped AgNP. One and 7 days following intratracheal instillation serum was analyzed for concentrations of selected cytokines; cardiac I/R injury and isolated coronary artery and aorta segment were assessed for constrictor responses and endothelial dependent relaxation and endothelial independent nitric oxide dependent relaxation. RESULTS: AgNP instillation resulted in modest increase in selected serum cytokines with elevations in IL-2, IL-18, and IL-6. Instillation resulted in a derangement of vascular responses to constrictors serotonin or phenylephrine, as well as endothelial dependent relaxations with acetylcholine or endothelial independent relaxations by sodium nitroprusside in a capping and size dependent manner. Exposure to both 20 and 110 nm AgNP resulted in exacerbation cardiac I/R injury 1 day following IT instillation independent of capping agent with 20 nm AgNP inducing marginally greater injury. Seven days following IT instillation the expansion of I/R injury persisted but the greatest injury was associated with exposure to 110 nm PVP capped AgNP resulted in nearly a two-fold larger infarct size compared to naïve. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to AgNP may result in vascular dysfunction, a potentially maladaptive sensitization of the immune system to respond to a secondary insult (e.g., cardiac I/R) which may drive expansion of I/R injury at 1 and 7 days following IT instillation where the extent of injury could be correlated with capping agents and AgNP size.

PVP formulated fullerene (C60) increases Rho-kinase dependent vascular tissue contractility in pregnant Sprague Dawley rats.

Pregnancy is a unique physiological state, in which C60 fullerene is reported to be distributed in both maternal and fetal tissues. Tissue distribution of C60 differs between pregnant and non-pregnant states, presumably due to functional changes in vasculature during pregnancy. We hypothesized that polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) formulated C60 (C60/PVP) increases vascular tissue contractility during pregnancy by increasing Rho-kinase activity. C60/PVP was administered intravenously to pregnant and non-pregnant female Sprague Dawley rats. Vascular responses were assessed using wire myography 24h post-exposure. Increased stress generation was observed in uterine artery, thoracic aorta and umbilical vein. Rho-Rho-kinase mediated force maintenance was increased in arterial segments from C60/PVP exposed pregnant rats when compared to PVP exposed rats. Our findings suggest that intravenous exposure to C60/PVP during pregnancy increases vascular tissue contractility of the uterine artery through elements of Rho-Rho-kinase signaling during late stages of pregnancy.

C60 exposure augments cardiac ischemia/reperfusion injury and coronary artery contraction in Sprague Dawley rats.

The potential uses of engineered C60 fullerene (C60) have expanded in recent decades to include industrial and biomedical applications. Based on clinical findings associated with particulate matter exposure and our data with multi-walled carbon nanotubes, we hypothesized that ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury and pharmacological responses in isolated coronary arteries would depend upon the route of exposure and gender in rats instilled with C60. Male and female Sprague Dawley rats were used to test this hypothesis by surgical induction of cardiac I/R injury in situ 24 h after intratracheal (IT) or intravenous (IV) instillation of 28 µg of C60 formulated in polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) or PVP vehicle. Serum was collected for quantification of various cytokines. Coronary artery segments were isolated for assessment of vasoactive pharmacology via wire myography. Both IV and IT exposure to C60 resulted in expansion of myocardial infarction in male and female rats following I/R injury. Serum-collected post-I/R showed elevated concentrations of interleukin-6 and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 in male rats exposed to IV C60. Coronary arteries isolated from male rats exposed to IT C60 demonstrated augmented vasocontraction in response to endothelin-1 that was attenuated with Indomethacin. IV C60 exposure resulted in impaired acetylcholine relaxation in male rats and IT C60 exposure resulted in depressed vasorelaxation in response to sodium nitroprusside in female rats. Based on these data, we conclude that IT and IV exposure to C60 results in unique cardiovascular consequences that may favor heightened coronary resistance and myocardial susceptibility to I/R injury.

Multi-walled carbon nanotube directed gene and protein expression in cultured human aortic endothelial cells is influenced by suspension medium.

The use and production of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) have significantly increased over the last decade due to their versatility in numerous applications. Their unique physical and chemical properties make them desirable for various biomedical applications, but the same properties also raise concerns about their safety to human health, particularly at the cellular level. The vascular endothelium could be exposed to nanomaterials either by direct intravenous administration in nanomedicine or by translocation following inhalational exposure in an occupational setting. We hypothesized that direct exposure to MWCNTs will increase the expression of inflammatory markers in human aortic endothelial cells (HAEC). We also investigated the effect of the route of exposure on activation by changing the suspension medium of the MWCNTs. HAEC were treated in vitro with MWCNTs (1 or 10 µg/cm(2)) suspended in either cell culture medium [(M)-MWCNTs] or 10% clinical grade pulmonary surfactant [(S)-MWCNTs]. The zeta potential of the (S)-MWCNTs was significantly more negative than the (M)-MWCNTs suggesting a more stable suspension. Treatment of HAEC with (S)-MWCNTs; as compared to (M)-MWCNTs resulted in a significantly higher up-regulation of mRNA transcripts for cell adhesion molecules VCAM1, SELE, ICAM1 and the chemokine CCL2. Time dependent changes in VCAM1 and CCL2 protein levels were confirmed by immunofluorescence, flow cytometry and ELISA. A label free quantitative mass spectrometry proteomic analysis was utilized to compare protein expression patterns between the two suspensions of MWCNTs. We identified significant expression changes in >200 unique proteins in MWCNT treated HAEC. However, the two suspensions of MWCNTs resulted in different protein expression patterns with the eIF2 pathway as the only common pathway identified between the two suspensions. These data suggest that direct exposure to MWCNTs induces acute inflammatory and protein expression changes in HAEC, which is influenced by the type of media used for suspension of MWCNTs and their resulting zeta potential.