Mycoplasma spp. pneumonia and subsequent pulmonary hypertension in a domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo).

Treatment of Mycoplasma spp. pneumonia has rarely been described in domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo). A 10-month-old, 0.53 kg, female spayed domestic ferret was presented for oxygen-dependent, chronic dyspnea of one-month's duration. Physical examination findings included dyspnea, tachypnea, increased bronchovesicular sounds bilaterally, and an intermittent non-productive cough. Bloodwork abnormalities included a mild leukocytosis (8.6×103/µL), mild neutrophilia (4.0×103/µL), mild hypoalbuminemia (2.7 g/dL), mild hyperglobulinemia (3.3 g/dL), mild hyponatremia (147 mEq/L), and mild hypochloremia (111.4 mEq/L). Radiographs revealed a marked diffuse bronchial pattern with peribronchial cuffing, a mild main pulmonary artery bulge, distended caudal lobar pulmonary arteries, and decreased serosal detail within the abdomen. An echocardiogram revealed indications of moderate pulmonary hypertension and systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve. Polymerase chain reaction testing for Mycoplasma spp. was positive, and treatment was initiated with doxycycline (10 mg/kg PO q 12 h for 16 weeks), prednisolone (0.4 mg/kg PO q 12 h for 13 weeks, tapered to 0.2 mg/kg PO q 12 h for two weeks, then eventually increased to 0.7 mg/kg PO q 12 h until further notice), sildenafil (0.3 mg/kg PO q 24 h for 13 weeks), and oxygen supplementation via an oxygen cage for six weeks. On repeat echocardiogram eleven weeks after initiation of doxycycline therapy, the pulmonary hypertension had resolved. At follow up six months later, the ferret was stable on previously prescribed medications and did not require oxygen supplementation. Mycoplasma spp. and pulmonary hypertension should be considered in cases of respiratory distress in ferrets.

Platelet hyperresponsiveness and increased platelet-neutrophil aggregates in dogs with myxomatous mitral valve disease and pulmonary hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in dogs with myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD) is caused by increased pulmonary venous pressure. Thrombosis, vascular remodeling, and vasoconstriction mediated by platelets could exacerbate PH. HYPOTHESIS: Dogs with PH will exhibit a hypercoagulable state, characterized by increased platelet activation, platelet-leukocyte, and platelet-neutrophil aggregate formation. ANIMALS: Eleven dogs (≥3.5 kg) diagnosed with MMVD and PH and 10 dogs with MMVD lacking PH. METHODS: Prospective cohort ex vivo study. All dogs underwent echocardiographic examination, CBC, 3-view thoracic radiographs, and heartworm antigen testing. Severity of PH and MMVD were assessed by echocardiography. Viscoelastic monitoring of coagulation was assessed using thromboelastography (TEG). Platelet activation and platelet-leukocyte/platelet-neutrophil interactions were assessed using flow cytometry. Plasma serotonin concentrations were measured by ELISA. RESULTS: Unstimulated platelets from dogs with MMVD and PH expressed more surface P-selectin than MMVD controls (P = .03). Platelets from dogs with MMVD and PH had persistent activation in response to agonists. The number of platelet-leukocyte aggregates was higher in dogs with MMVD and PH compared with MMVD controls (P = .01). Ex vivo stimulation of whole blood resulted in higher numbers of platelet-neutrophil aggregates in dogs with MMVD and PH (P = .01). Assessment of hypercoagulability based on TEG or plasma serotonin concentrations did not differ between groups. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Platelet hyperresponsiveness and increased platelet-neutrophil interaction occur in dogs with MMVD and PH, suggesting that platelets play a role of in the pathogenesis of PH. Clinical benefits of antiplatelet drugs in dogs with MMVD and PH require further investigation.

Utility of vertebral left atrial size and vertebral heart size to aid detection of congestive heart failure in dogs with respiratory signs.

BACKGROUND: Differentiating cardiogenic vs noncardiogenic causes of respiratory signs can be challenging when echocardiography is unavailable. Radiographic vertebral left atrial size (VLAS) and vertebral heart size (VHS) have been shown to predict echocardiographic left heart size, with VLAS specifically estimating left atrial size. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: Compare the diagnostic accuracy of VLAS and VHS to predict left-sided congestive heart failure (CHF) in dogs presenting with respiratory signs. ANIMALS: One-hundred fourteen dogs with respiratory signs and radiographic pulmonary abnormalities. METHODS: Retrospective cross-sectional study. Dogs had to have an echocardiogram and thoracic radiographs obtained within 24 hours. Diagnosis of CHF was confirmed based on the presence of respiratory signs, cardiac disease, LA enlargement, and cardiogenic pulmonary edema. RESULTS: Fifty-seven dogs had CHF and 57 did not have CHF. Compared to VHS (area under the curve [AUC] 0.85; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.77-0.91), VLAS was a significantly (P = .03) more accurate predictor of CHF (AUC, 0.92; 95% CI, 0.85-0.96). Optimal cutoff for VLAS was >2.3 vertebrae (sensitivity, 93.0%; specificity, 82.5%). Murmur grade (P = .02) and VLAS (P < .0001) were independently associated with CHF and VHS was not. Increased VHS (54%) was significantly (P = .01) more common than increased VLAS (24%) in dogs without CHF. Results were similar in a subsample of older and smaller dogs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: When echocardiography is unavailable, VLAS and murmur grade have clinically utility to aid in differentiating cardiogenic from noncardiogenic respiratory signs. These findings might be especially useful to help rule out CHF in dogs with increased VHS that present with respiratory signs.

Echocardiographic values for normal conditioned and unconditioned North American whippets.

BACKGROUND: Echocardiographic reference intervals have not been reported for North American whippets, or for whippets that have undergone pet-level athletic training. OBJECTIVES: To develop normal echocardiographic reference intervals for North American whippets and investigate differences in echocardiographic parameters based on athletic conditioning in pet whippets engaged in competitive sports. ANIMALS: One-hundred healthy North American whippets. METHODS: Dogs were examined at national shows between 2005 and 2009. Echocardiographic reference intervals were constructed and the effect of athletic conditioning on parameters of structure and function was assessed. RESULTS: Two dimensional, M-mode, Doppler and tissue Doppler reference ranges for healthy North American whippets are presented. Measures of left ventricular (LV) chamber diameter were larger in conditioned whippets (N = 25) and remained significantly larger than in unconditioned whippets (N = 16) when normalized for weight using allometric equations. Calculated LV mass was higher in conditioned dogs than in unconditioned dogs, and this difference persisted when LV mass was normalized by weight. Mitral E velocity was higher in conditioned dogs than in unconditioned dogs, whereas E/A and measures related to systolic function were not different. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Pet whippets in peak athletic condition have larger hearts than do less conditioned whippets, but measures of systolic function are similar. Whippet pet athletes may show eccentric LV hypertrophy at peak condition. Normal values for cardiac size and function in North American whippets might be considered abnormal if population-specific whippet reference intervals are not used in analysis.

Effect of standard-dose and high-dose pimobendan on select indices of renal and cardiac function in dogs with American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine stage B2 myxomatous mitral valve disease.

BACKGROUND: Pimobendan might have favorable effects on renal function but this has not been well-studied in dogs with myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD). OBJECTIVES: Determine the effects of standard-dose (SD_pimo) and high-dose pimobendan (HD_pimo) on glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and cardiac size and function in dogs with preclinical MMVD. ANIMALS: Thirty nonazotemic dogs with stage B2 MMVD. METHODS: Prospective, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical study. Dogs had an echocardiographic examination, assessment of GFR (iohexol clearance), N-terminal probrain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), and quality of life (QOL) score at baseline and 7 to 10 days after placebo (n = 6), SD_pimo 0.2 to 0.3 mg/kg q12 (n = 12), or HD_pimo 0.5 to 0.6 mg/kg q12h (n = 12). RESULTS: No significant differences in GFR or QOL scores were detected between groups (P ≥ .07). After HD_pimo, the mean [SD] percent change of NT_proBNP (-46.1 [20.2]%), left atrial volume (LAV; -27.1 [16.9]%), left ventricular end-diastolic volume (EDV; -21.8 [15.0]%), and end-systolic volume (ESV; -55.0 [20.7]%) were significantly different (P ≤ .004) from placebo (0.5 [19.9]%, 1.3 [15.6]%, -0.2 [8.2]%, -7.3 [35.6]%, respectively) but not the percent change after SD_pimo (-36.6 [16.1]%, -22.7 [14.9]%, -16.7 [12.5]%, -41.6 [14.8]%, respectively; P > .05). After SD_pimo, percent change of NT_proBNP, LAV, EDV, and ESV were significantly different from placebo (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Results suggest that pimobendan (SD_pimo or HD_pimo) might not affect renal function in nonazotemic dogs with stage B2 MMVD. High-dose pimobendan did not demonstrate advantages over SD_pimo within the constraints of our study.

The development of ventricular fibrillation as a complication of pericardiectomy in 16 dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical characteristics, perioperative protocols, and outcomes in dogs diagnosed with ventricular fibrillation (VF) while undergoing pericardiectomy. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective, multi-institutional study. ANIMALS: Sixteen client-owned dogs. METHODS: Cases were accrued through a listserve request posted to 3 subspecialty veterinary societies. Dogs were included if they developed VF during a pericardiectomy performed through an open or thoracoscopic approach. Data collected included signalment, history and physical examination, surgical approach, histopathology, treatment, and outcome. RESULTS: Indications for pericardiectomy included idiopathic chylothorax (n = 7), neoplasia (4), idiopathic pericardial effusion (4), and foreign body granuloma (1). Surgical approaches included thoracoscopy (12), intercostal thoracotomy (3) and median sternotomy (1). Electrosurgical devices were used to complete at least part of the pericardiectomy in 15 of 16 dogs. Ventricular fibrillation appeared to be initiated during electrosurgical use in 8/15 dogs. However, in 5/15 dogs it was not obviously associated with electrosurgical use. In 3/16 dogs the timing of initiation of VF was unclear. In 7/16 dogs, cardiac arrhythmias were noted prior to the development of VF. Fourteen of 16 dogs died from intraoperative VF. CONCLUSION: In most dogs ventricular fibrillation was a fatal complication of pericardiectomy. Ventricular fibrillation might be associated with the use of electrosurgical devices and cardiac manipulation during pericardiectomy although a causal link could not be established from the data in this study. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Surgeons must be aware of the risk of VF during pericardial surgery. Electrosurgery might need to be used judiciously during pericardiectomy, particularly in dogs exhibiting cardiac arrythmias.

Retrospective evaluation of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in 68 dogs.

BACKGROUND: There is a lack of clinical data on hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) in dogs. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: To investigate signalment, clinical signs, diagnostic findings, and survival in dogs with HCM. ANIMALS: Sixty-eight client-owned dogs. METHODS: Retrospective multicenter study. Medical records were searched between 2003 and 2015. The diagnosis of left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy was made by echocardiographic examination. RESULTS: Three hundred and forty-five dogs with LV hypertrophy were identified, of which 277 were excluded. The remaining 68 dogs were 0.3 to 14 years old and predominantly <10 kg (85%), and without a sex predilection. Twenty-four % were Shih Tzu and 24% terrier breeds. Most (80%) had a systolic heart murmur. Owner-determined exercise intolerance (37%) and syncope (18%) were most commonly reported signs. The majority (84%) of dogs had symmetrical LV hypertrophy, whereas asymmetrical septal and LV free wall hypertrophy was observed in 9% and 6% of dogs, respectively. Isolated basal interventricular septal hypertrophy was not observed. Commonly recorded were systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve (60%) and LV diastolic dysfunction (89% of dogs where diastolic function was evaluated). Six dogs died unexpectedly, and 3 developed congestive heart failure. Known survival times were between 1 day and 114 months after diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in dogs should be considered as a differential diagnosis if LV hypertrophy is identified. Small breed dogs are overrepresented, and it is uncommon for dogs with HCM to develop CHF although sudden death can occur.

Outcome and prognostic factors in infective endocarditis in dogs: 113 cases (2005-2020).

BACKGROUND: Factors associated with outcome in dogs diagnosed with infective endocarditis (IE) are not well characterized. OBJECTIVES: Evaluate outcome and prognostic factors in dogs with IE. ANIMALS: One hundred and thirteen dogs with IE. METHODS: Medical records for dogs that fulfilled the modified Duke criteria between 2005 and 2020 were retrospectively reviewed. Signalment, preexisting conditions, clinicopathologic findings, treatment regimen, and outcomes were recorded. Univariate logistic regression was performed to identify categorical factors associated with mortality, and then multivariate analysis was performed. RESULTS: Dogs were categorized as survivors (n = 47), non-survivors (n = 57), or lost to follow-up (n = 9). Survival to discharge and at 1 month was documented in 79 (70%) of 113 and 56 (54%) of 104 dogs, respectively, with median survival time (MST) of 72 days. Risk factors associated with mortality included development of congestive heart failure (odds ratio [OR], 11.8; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.4-97.8), thromboembolic events (OR, 5.7; 95% CI, 2.3-14.4), and acute kidney injury (OR, 6.2; 95% CI, 2.0-18.8). Administration of antithrombotic medications was associated with survival (OR, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.13-0.97). Dogs that were not treated with antithrombotics had MST of 92 days, whereas dogs treated with antithrombotics did not reach MST during the study period. The heart valves involved and etiologic agent identified did not correlate with outcome. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Dogs with IE that had thromboembolic events, acute kidney injury, or congestive heart failure had higher risk of mortality. Administration of antithrombotics was associated with prolonged survival time.

Biopsy of an intracardiac paraganglioma in a dog using a fluoroscopically guided endovascular technique.

A 10-year-old female spayed mixed breed dog was evaluated for diarrhea and vomiting. Diagnostic imaging demonstrated the presence of an intracardiac mass. A modified Seldinger technique was used to access the right jugular vein, and an endomyocardial biopsy forceps was introduced through a sheath to obtain several biopsies. Histopathology and immunohistochemistry demonstrated a paraganglioma. The dog underwent 1 fraction of radiotherapy and l-asparaginase chemotherapy and was discharged. The dog developed a pulmonary thromboembolism 2 days after radiotherapy and chemotherapy, and the owner elected humane euthanasia. Although long-term assessment of treatment response was unable to be performed, this novel diagnostic option could be considered for similar cases due to success in obtaining a histopathologic diagnosis, which is essential in developing a disease-specific treatment plan. This report also describes the use of radiotherapy for primary treatment of an intracardiac neoplasm, which can be a consideration in the future.

Acute pharmacodynamic effects of pimobendan in client-owned cats with subclinical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: Prior studies have suggested that pimobendan is associated with several positive effects in cats, including improved survival in cats with congestive heart failure and improved left atrial function in research colony cats with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) and normal cats. However, there is still a paucity of pharmacodynamic data refuting or supporting the use of pimobendan in a clinical cat population. This clinical trial aimed to evaluate the pharmacodynamic effects and tolerability of a single dose of pimobendan in cats with HCM. Echocardiograms and Doppler-derived systolic blood pressures were performed in 21 client-owned cats with subclinical HCM at baseline and 90-min after oral administration of 1.25 mg of pimobendan (Vetmedin). Seven additional cats were evaluated post-placebo administration to account for intra-day variability. RESULTS: Heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and murmur grade were not significantly different between baseline and post-pimobendan evaluations. Left auricular blood flow velocity, left atrial size, and left ventricular fractional shortening were not significantly different between baseline and post-pimobendan evaluations. Mean (± standard deviation) tissue Doppler peak systolic velocity of the mitral annulus was significantly higher following pimobendan (7.4 cm/s ± 1.5 vs 8.5 ± 1.6; p = 0.02). Median (min, max) left-ventricular outflow tract maximum velocity was significantly higher following pimobendan [1.9 m/sec (1.5, 3.4) vs 2.6 m/sec (2.0, 4.0); p = 0.01]. Mean right-ventricular outflow tract maximum velocity was also significantly higher following pimobendan (1.5 m/s ± 0.51 vs 2.0 ± 0.53; p = 0.004). Mean left atrial fractional shortening was significantly higher following pimobendan (28% ± 6 vs 32% ± 7; p = 0.02). No adverse events were observed following pimobendan administration. Right ventricular outflow tract velocity was significantly higher following placebo in control cats (1.02 ± 0.21 versus 1.31 ± 0.31; p = 0.01). No other significant differences were detected. CONCLUSIONS: In client-owned cats with HCM, pimobendan acutely increased left atrial function and mildly increased left ventricular systolic function. Left ventricular outflow tract velocity was increased after pimobendan. Pimobendan was well tolerated in the acute setting in cats with HCM. The findings of this prospective, acute-dosing study confirm previous findings in research animals and retrospective analyses and suggest that chronic dosing studies are safe and warranted.

Choroidal neuroendocrine neoplasia in a dog.

OBJECTIVE: To report onset and progression of clinical signs of a neuroendocrine neoplasm (NEN) presumed metastatic to the choroid in a dog. ANIMALS STUDIED: A 7.5-year-old female spayed German shepherd dog mix referred for advanced imaging and evaluation of a subretinal mass in the right eye. PROCEDURES: Procedures performed included general physical and ophthalmic examinations; ocular, orbital, and abdominal ultrasonography; thoracic radiographs; cranial magnetic resonance imaging; serologic testing for infectious agents; analysis of hematologic as well as serum and urine biochemical parameters; echocardiography; electrocardiography; cytologic assessment of lymph nodes; and histopathology and immunohistochemistry of the enucleated globe. RESULTS: Examination and imaging identified a pigmented mass within and expanding the superior choroid. Following enucleation, a choroidal NEN with tumor emboli in scleral blood vessels was diagnosed by histopathologic assessment and confirmed by immunohistochemical labelling. Despite extensive and repeated diagnostic testing over many months, a putative primary site was not identified until 19 months after the initial ocular signs were noted. At that time, a heart-base mass and congestive heart failure were highly suggestive of a chemodectoma. CONCLUSION: This comprehensive report of a NEN presumed metastatic to the choroid in a dog suggests that ocular disease can be a very early and solitary sign of NEN in the dog.

Evaluation of radiographic predictors of left heart enlargement in dogs with known or suspected cardiovascular disease.

Radiographic assessment of heart size is important for clinical management of dogs with cardiovascular disease (CVDz). We sought to compare the ability of vertebral heart size (VHS), vertebral left atrial size (VLAS), and radiologists' assessment of left atrial size (RadLAE) to predict echocardiographic left atrial size (EchoLAE), an important marker of left heart disease severity. We also compared the ability of VHS and VLAS to predict echocardiographic criteria for ACVIM stage B2 (EchoB2) in dogs with myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD). This prospective observational study enrolled 183 dogs with known or suspected CVDz that had an echocardiographic examination and thoracic radiographs obtained within 24 h. Compared to increased VHS, VLAS >2.3 was a more accurate predictor of EchoLAE (P = .002). VLAS >2.3 and RadLAE (both P <.0001) were independently associated with EchoLAE but VHS was not (P = .45). Optimal cutoffs for VLAS and VHS to predict EchoLAE were >2.3 vertebrae (sensitivity [Sn] = 90.3%, specificity [Sp] = 73.6%) and >11.1 vertebrae (Sn = 75.8%, Sp = 76.0%), respectively. Diagnostic accuracy of VLAS (AUC 0.84, 95% CI 0.73-0.92) and VHS (AUC 0.78, 95% CI 0.66-0.88) to predict EchoB2 in dogs with subclinical MMVD (n = 64) were not significantly different (P = .17). Results demonstrate that VLAS and RadLAE were superior indicators of EchoLAE compared to VHS in dogs with known or suspected CVDz. Both VLAS and VHS are useful predictors of EchoB2 in dogs with subclinical MMVD. When echocardiography is unavailable, VLAS represents a useful radiographic measurement to aid clinical management of dogs with known or suspected CVDz.

Pilot study: Application of artificial intelligence for detecting left atrial enlargement on canine thoracic radiographs.

Although deep learning has been explored extensively for computer-aided medical imaging diagnosis in human medicine, very little has been done in veterinary medicine. The goal of this retrospective, pilot project was to apply the deep learning artificial intelligence technique using thoracic radiographs for detection of canine left atrial enlargement and compare results with those of veterinary radiologist interpretations. Seven hundred ninety-two right lateral radiographs from canine patients with thoracic radiographs and contemporaneous echocardiograms were used to train, validate, and test a convolutional neural network algorithm. The accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity for determination of left atrial enlargement were then compared with those of board-certified veterinary radiologists as recorded on radiology reports. The accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity were 82.71%, 68.42%, and 87.09%, respectively, using an accuracy driven variant of the convolutional neural network algorithm and 79.01%, 73.68%, and 80.64%, respectively, using a sensitivity driven variant. By comparison, accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity achieved by board-certified veterinary radiologists was 82.71%, 68.42%, and 87.09%, respectively. Although overall accuracy of the accuracy driven convolutional neural network algorithm and veterinary radiologists was identical, concordance between the two approaches was 85.19%. This study documents proof-of-concept for application of deep learning techniques for computer-aided diagnosis in veterinary medicine.

Intramuscular Diphenhydramine Does Not Affect Acute Doxorubicin Infusion-Related Arrhythmia Number or Severity in a Prospective Crossover Study in Canine Lymphoma: A Pilot Study.

Background: Doxorubicin (DOX) is one of the most effective chemotherapeutics for canine high-grade lymphoma. In addition to dose-dependent chronic cardiotoxicity, DOX can trigger acute cardiac arrhythmias during drug infusion. Diphenhydramine premedication is commonly used, as histamine release is a proposed mechanism for DOX-associated arrhythmogenesis. Hypothesis/Objectives: The study objectives were to evaluate the incidence and severity of DOX infusion-related cardiac arrhythmias in dogs with high-grade lymphoma and evaluate the effect of diphenhydramine premedication on arrhythmia frequency and severity during and after DOX infusion. Animals: Twenty-two client-owned dogs with cytologically/histopathologically confirmed high-grade lymphoma were recruited, of which 19 were enrolled and 9 completed the study. Methods: Dogs were screened by echocardiogram and concurrent electrocardiogram for this randomized prospective crossover study. Group A received no premedication for DOX #1 and was premedicated with diphenhydramine for DOX #2; Group B received diphenhydramine with DOX #1 and no premedication for DOX #2. For both visits, Holter monitor data were collected for 1 h pre-DOX and 3 h post-DOX administration. Results: Nineteen dogs were enrolled and 9 dogs [Group A (5), Group B (4)] completed the protocol. There was no statistical difference between the DOX alone and DOX + diphenhydramine when evaluating the total number of ventricular premature complexes (VPCs, P = 0.34), change in VPCs/hour (P = 0.25), total number of atrial premature complexes (APCs, P = 0.5), change in APCs/hour (P = 0.06), or ventricular arrhythmia severity score (P > 0.99). Conclusions and clinical importance: This study demonstrates that in these dogs with rigorous pretreatment cardiovascular screening, DOX infusion did not induce significant arrhythmias. Furthermore, these data suggest that, with this screening approach, diphenhydramine may not alter the arrhythmia number or severity in canine DOX recipients.

Reproducibility of echocardiographic indices of left atrial size in dogs with subclinical myxomatous mitral valve disease.

BACKGROUND: Reliability of echocardiographic measurements of left atrial (LA) size, an important marker of disease severity, has not been reported in dogs with myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD). OBJECTIVES: To define and compare reliability of left atrial dimension/diameter (LAD), LAD indexed to aortic valve diameter (LAD/AoD), left atrium-to-aortic root ratio (LA/Ao), left atrial volume acquired from a right parasternal long-axis (LAVRPLx ), and left apical view (LAVLAP ) in dogs with subclinical MMVD. ANIMALS: Nine dogs with subclinical MMVD. METHODS: Prospective reproducibility study. Dogs underwent 12 echocardiographic examinations by 2 operators on the mornings and afternoons of 3 nonconsecutive days within 1 week. Reliability (measurement variability) was quantified using coefficients of variation (CV) and 95% repeatability/reproducibility coefficients (95% RC). A mixed-model analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine if time of day, day, and operator were significant sources of variability for each index. RESULTS: Linear measurements (LAD, LAD/AoD, and LA/Ao) exhibited less within-day, between-day, and interoperator variability (CVs, 3.9%-12.5%) than did volume estimate measurements (LAVRPLx and LAVLAP ; CVs, 11.8%-17.9%). Of the linear measurements, LA/Ao exhibited greater variability (CVs, 9.9%-12.5%) compared to LAD and LAD/AoD (CVs, 3.9%-4.9%). Operator was a significant (P = .005) source of variability for LA/Ao. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Compared to other linear measurements, LA/Ao was the least reproducible and most dependent on operator. The 95% RC for each LA size index are provided to help identify clinically relevant changes (beyond intraoperator or interoperator variability) during serial echocardiographic examinations of dogs with subclinical MMVD.

Survival characteristics and prognostic importance of echocardiographic measurements of right heart size and function in dogs with pulmonary hypertension.

BACKGROUND: The clinical relevance of echocardiographic measurements of right heart size and function in dogs with pulmonary hypertension (PH) is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To determine if echocardiographic measurements of right heart size and right ventricular (RV) function are associated with survival times in dogs with PH. ANIMALS: Eighty-two client-owned dogs. METHODS: Retrospective study where data from medical records and baseline echocardiographic examinations were collected and measured in a standardized manner. Owners or primary veterinarians were contacted for outcome data. RESULTS: Enlargement of the right atrium (88%), RV (69%), and pulmonary artery (72%) was common. One-third of the cases had reduced RV function quantified by two-dimensional echocardiography-derived tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE). Decreased TAPSE was significantly (P = .008) more common in dogs with PH not secondary to left heart disease (LHD; 43%) compared to dogs with PH secondary to LHD (14%) but median survival times (182, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 39-309 versus 298, 95% CI = 85-314 days, respectively) were not significantly different (P = .78). Right atrial area (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.72, 95% CI = 1.58-4.70), TAPSE < 3.23 mm/kg0.284 (HR = 2.19, 95% CI = 1.28-3.74), and right heart failure (HR = 2.05, 95% CI = 1.18-3.57) were independently associated with shorter survival time (P ≤ .04). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Right atrial area, RV function (TAPSE < 3.23 mm/kg0.284 ), and right heart failure offer clinically relevant prognostic information in dogs with PH. Results support the quantitative assessment of right heart size and function in dogs with PH.

ACVIM consensus statement guidelines for the diagnosis, classification, treatment, and monitoring of pulmonary hypertension in dogs.

Pulmonary hypertension (PH), defined by increased pressure within the pulmonary vasculature, is a hemodynamic and pathophysiologic state present in a wide variety of cardiovascular, respiratory, and systemic diseases. The purpose of this consensus statement is to provide a multidisciplinary approach to guidelines for the diagnosis, classification, treatment, and monitoring of PH in dogs. Comprehensive evaluation including consideration of signalment, clinical signs, echocardiographic parameters, and results of other diagnostic tests supports the diagnosis of PH and allows identification of associated underlying conditions. Dogs with PH can be classified into the following 6 groups: group 1, pulmonary arterial hypertension; group 2, left heart disease; group 3, respiratory disease/hypoxia; group 4, pulmonary emboli/pulmonary thrombi/pulmonary thromboemboli; group 5, parasitic disease (Dirofilaria and Angiostrongylus); and group 6, disorders that are multifactorial or with unclear mechanisms. The approach to treatment of PH focuses on strategies to decrease the risk of progression, complications, or both, recommendations to target underlying diseases or factors contributing to PH, and PH-specific treatments. Dogs with PH should be monitored for improvement, static condition, or progression, and any identified underlying disorder should be addressed and monitored simultaneously.

Echocardiographic quantitation of left heart size and function in 122 healthy dogs: A prospective study proposing reference intervals and assessing repeatability.

BACKGROUND: Broadly applicable reference intervals (RIs) for measurements of left atrial (LA) and left ventricular (LV) size and function generated prospectively using statistically appropriate methods are limited. OBJECTIVES: To generate body size-independent RIs for linear, area, and volume measurements of LA size and LV size and function. ANIMALS: Healthy adult dogs (n = 122) of variable size and somatotype. METHODS: Prospective study. All dogs underwent an echocardiogram performed by the same examiner. Effects of body weight, sex, age, and heart rate were evaluated by regression and correlation analyses. Scaling exponents and prediction intervals were generated for linear measurements using the allometric equation. After normalization to body weight, 95% RIs were determined using nonparametric methods with 2.5 and 97.5 percentiles serving as the lower and upper limits (each with 90% confidence intervals), respectively. RESULTS: Linear LA and LV measurements were strongly correlated (R2 ≥ 0.79) with body weight. Scaling exponents were close to the expected 1/3 (0.299-0.392). Prediction intervals for linear measurements of LV chamber size were considerably narrower than previously reported. Weak correlations (r = -0.42 to -0.50) among LV fractional shortening, fractional area change, and ejection fraction and body weight were identified. No other meaningful relationships were identified between the measurements and sex, age, and heart rate. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Body size-independent RIs for several linear, area, and volume measurements of LA and LV size and function were generated prospectively from a large and diverse reference population and are available for clinical use.