Phase 3 Trial of Crinecerfont in Pediatric Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia.

BACKGROUND: Children with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency require treatment with glucocorticoids, usually at supraphysiologic doses, to address cortisol insufficiency and reduce excess adrenal androgens. However, such treatment confers a predisposition to glucocorticoid-related complications. In 2-week phase 2 trials, patients with CAH who received crinecerfont, a new oral corticotropin-releasing factor type 1 receptor antagonist, had decreases in androstenedione levels. METHODS: In this phase 3, multinational, randomized trial, we assigned pediatric participants with CAH, in a 2:1 ratio, to receive crinecerfont or placebo for 28 weeks. A stable glucocorticoid dose was maintained for 4 weeks, and the dose was then adjusted to a target of 8.0 to 10.0 mg per square meter of body-surface area per day (hydrocortisone dose equivalents), provided that the androstenedione level was controlled (≤120% of the baseline level or within the reference range). The primary efficacy end point was the change in the androstenedione level from baseline to week 4. A key secondary end point was the percent change in the glucocorticoid dose from baseline to week 28 while androstenedione control was maintained. RESULTS: A total of 103 participants underwent randomization, of whom 69 were assigned to the crinecerfont group and 34 to the placebo group; 100 (97%) remained in the trial at 28 weeks. At baseline, the mean glucocorticoid dose was 16.4 mg per square meter per day, and the mean androstenedione level was 431 ng per deciliter (15.0 nmol per liter). At week 4, the androstenedione level was substantially reduced in the crinecerfont group (-197 ng per deciliter [-6.9 nmol per liter]) but increased in the placebo group (71 ng per deciliter [2.5 nmol per liter]) (least-squares mean difference, -268 ng per deciliter [-9.3 nmol per liter]; P<0.001); the observed mean androstenedione value, obtained before the morning glucocorticoid dose, was 208 ng per deciliter (7.3 nmol per liter) in the crinecerfont group, as compared with 545 ng per deciliter (19.0 nmol per liter) in the placebo group. At week 28, the mean glucocorticoid dose had decreased (while androstenedione control was maintained) by 18.0% with crinecerfont but increased by 5.6% with placebo (least-squares mean difference, -23.5 percentage points; P<0.001). Headache, pyrexia, and vomiting were the most common adverse events. CONCLUSIONS: In this phase 3 trial, crinecerfont was superior to placebo in reducing elevated androstenedione levels in pediatric participants with CAH and was also associated with a decrease in the glucocorticoid dose from supraphysiologic to physiologic levels while androstenedione control was maintained. (Funded by Neurocrine Biosciences; CAHtalyst Pediatric ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT04806451.).

Multicenter Analysis of Cardiometabolic-Related Diagnoses in Youth with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: a PEDSnet study.

CONTEXT: Small cohorts of youth with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) demonstrate increased risk of obesity and poor cardiometabolic health. OBJECTIVE: To determine the odds of cardiometabolic-related diagnoses in youth with CAH compared to matched controls in a cross-sectional analysis in a large, multisite database (PEDSnet). DESIGN: Electronic health record data (2009-2019) were used to determine odds of cardiometabolic-related outcomes based on diagnosis, anthropometric and laboratory data using logistic regression among youth with CAH vs. controls. SETTING: Six PEDSnet sites. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Youth with CAH and >1 outpatient visit in PEDSnet (n=1,647) were propensity-score matched on 8 variables to controls (n=6,588). A subset of youth with classic CAH (n=547, with glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid prescriptions) were matched to controls (n=2,188). INTERVENTION(S): N/A. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Odds of having cardiometabolic-related diagnoses among youth over 2 years with CAH compared to matched controls. RESULTS: Outcomes were calculated for all individuals with CAH (median age at last visit 12.9 years [7.3, 17.6]) and a subset with classic CAH (median age at last visit 11.6 years [4.7, 17.5]) compared to their matched controls. All patients with CAH had higher odds of overweight/obesity (odds ratio [95% confidence interval] 3.63 [3.24,4.07]), hypertension (3.07 [2.60,3.64]), dysglycemia (1.95 [1.35,2.82], dyslipidemia (2.28 [1.79,2.91]) and liver dysfunction (2.30 [1.91,2.76]) compared to matched controls. Patients with classic CAH had higher odds of overweight/obesity (3.21 [2.61,3.93]), hypertension (8.22 [6.71,10.08]), and liver dysfunction (2.11 [1.55,2.89]) compared to matched controls. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, youth with CAH are at increased risk of diagnoses related to worse cardiometabolic health.

Salivary Diurnal Cortisol Predicts Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms in Parents of Infants With Congenital Heart Disease.

BACKGROUND: Parents of infants born with congenital heart disease (CHD) who require open heart surgery after birth are at risk for prolonged psychological distress. Even after their infants are discharged, parents may experience anxiety, depressive, and post-traumatic stress (PTS) symptoms; yet, it is unclear which parents are at greater risk for ongoing symptoms. The purpose of this study was to explore whether measures of the biomarker cortisol in parents during their infants' postoperative period were associated with subsequent psychological distress symptoms at three-month post discharge. METHODS: This was a prospective, longitudinal exploratory study of 40 parents of infants with CHD after open heart surgery using consecutive enrollment. Parents provided diurnal saliva samples for two consecutive days in the postoperative period. Six predictors were summarized and generated including waking cortisol, bedtime cortisol, cortisol awaking response, area under curve with respect to the ground (AUCg), cortisol index, and cortisol slope. Self-report outcome measures on anxiety, depressive, and PTS symptoms were collected three-months post-discharge. Linear mixed models examined the associations between each predictor and each outcome while accounting for within-dyad variance using an unstructured covariance matrix. RESULTS: Cortisol AUCg was a predictor of PTS at three-months post-discharge (ß = .34, p = .03, Cohen's d = 2.05). No significant relationships were found with the other cortisol measures. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: Findings suggest that cortisol area under curve may help to identify parents at risk for increased PTS in the months following their infants' hospitalization for cardiac surgery, serving as a foundation for future study in this area.

Information needs and health status in adolescents and young adults with differences of sex development or sex chromosome aneuploidies.

INTRODUCTION: When and how to provide condition-related information to adolescents and young adults (AYAs) with differences of sex development or sex chromosome aneuploidies (DSDs or SCAs) is largely based on anecdotal experience and lacks informed guidance. For AYAs with a DSD or SCA, having accurate information is critical for attaining optimal adjustment and well-being, participating in decision making related to treatment options, and transitioning successfully to adult health care, yet prior studies have focused exclusively on parental perspectives and not on the views of adolescents themselves. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to describe unmet information needs in AYAs with a DSD or SCA and examine associations with perceived global health. METHODS: Participants were recruited from specialty clinics at Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (n = 20) and Children's Hospital Colorado (n = 60). AYAs ages 12-21 years with a DSD or SCA and a parent completed a survey assessing perceived information needs across 20 topics, importance of those topics, and global health using the PROMIS Pediatric Global Health questionnaire (PGH-7). RESULTS: AYAs had diagnoses of Klinefelter syndrome (41%), Turner syndrome (25%), and DSD (26%) and were 16.7 years (SD = 2.56) and 44% female. Parent participants were primarily mothers (81%). AYAs perceived that 48.09% of their information needs were unmet (SD = 25.18, range: 0-100). Parents perceived that 55.31% of AYAs' information needs were unmet (SD = 27.46 range: 5-100). AYAs and parents across conditions reported unmet needs related to information about transition to adult health care, financial support for medical care, and how the condition might affect the AYA's health in the future. While AYA-reported PGH-7 scores were not associated with percentage of AYA unmet information needs, parent-reported PGH-7 scores were (r = -.46, p < .001), such that lower parent-reported global health was associated with higher percentage of AYA unmet information needs. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: On average, parents and AYAs perceived that half of AYAs' information needs were unmet, and a higher percentage of AYA unmet information needs was associated with lower perceived global health. The frequency of unmet needs in this sample of AYAs reflects an opportunity for improvement in clinical care. Future research is needed to understand how education to children and AYAs unfolds as they mature and to develop strategies to address the information needs of AYAs with a DSD or SCA, promote well-being, and facilitate AYA engagement in their own health care.

Allometric Scaling of Testosterone Enanthate Pharmacokinetics to Adolescent Hypogonadal Males (IM and SC Administration).

Context: Intramuscular (IM) testosterone enanthate (TE) and testosterone pellets were US Food and Drug Administration approved before 1962 for pediatric use but not studied in controlled trials in adolescents. Objective: An analysis using nonlinear mixed effect (NLME) modeling was designed to evaluate the adult pharmacokinetics (PK) of subcutaneous (SC) and IM TE. This model was used to simulate SC and IM TE administration in adolescents of different weight groups. Methods: Data from adult male patients in a phase 2 trial were used to characterize the PK of TE using population PK modeling for SC and IM administration: Allometry was used to scale PK parameters from the adult model to simulate adolescent (aged 12 to < 18 years) serum testosterone levels at body weights of 30, 40, 50, and 60 kg after weekly, every-other-week (EOW), and monthly SC and IM administration of 12.5, 25, 50, 75, and 100 mg TE regimens. Results: The final data set included 714 samples from 15 patients receiving 100 mg SC TE and 123 samples from 10 patients receiving 200 mg IM TE. In simulated populations, average serum concentration SC:IM ratios were 0.783, 0.776, and 0.757 at steady state for weekly, EOW, and monthly dosing groups, respectively. Simulated regimens of 12.5 mg SC TE monthly produced serum testosterone levels representative of early puberty and simulated pubertal stage progression following multiple subsequent testosterone dose increases. Conclusion: SC TE administration achieved a testosterone exposure-response relationship similar to IM TE in simulated adolescent hypogonadal males, which may reduce size of fluctuations in serum T and related symptoms.

Crinecerfont, a CRF1 Receptor Antagonist, Lowers Adrenal Androgens in Adolescents With Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia.

CONTEXT: Crinecerfont, a corticotropin-releasing factor type 1 receptor antagonist, has been shown to reduce elevated adrenal androgens and precursors in adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD), a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by cortisol deficiency and androgen excess due to elevated adrenocorticotropin. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the safety, tolerability, and efficacy of crinecerfont in adolescents with 21OHD CAH. METHODS: This was an open-label, phase 2 study (NCT04045145) at 4 centers in the United States. Participants were males and females, 14 to 17 years of age, with classic 21OHD CAH. Crinecerfont was administered orally (50 mg twice daily) for 14 consecutive days with morning and evening meals. The main outcomes were change from baseline to day 14 in circulating concentrations of ACTH, 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP), androstenedione, and testosterone. RESULTS: 8 participants (3 males, 5 females) were enrolled; median age was 15 years and 88% were Caucasian/White. After 14 days of crinecerfont, median percent reductions from baseline to day 14 were as follows: ACTH, -57%; 17OHP, -69%; and androstenedione, -58%. In female participants, 60% (3/5) had ≥50% reduction from baseline in testosterone. CONCLUSION: Adolescents with classic 21OHD CAH had substantial reductions in adrenal androgens and androgen precursors after 14 days of oral crinecerfont administration. These results are consistent with a study of crinecerfont in adults with classic 21OHD CAH.

Approach to the Patient: Central Precocious Puberty.

Central precocious puberty (CPP) classically refers to premature activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis with onset of sexual development before the age of 8 years in girls and 9 years in boys. A decrease in the age of thelarche has been reported over the past several decades; however, the tempo of pubertal progression can be slower and adult height may not be adversely affected in many of the girls who experience thelarche at 6-8 years. Outside of this secular trend in the development itself, the past several decades have also brought about advances in diagnosis and management. This includes the widespread use of an ultrasensitive luteinizing hormone assay, decreasing the need for stimulation testing and a better understanding of the genetics that govern the onset of puberty. Additionally, management of CPP using gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogs (GnRHas) has changed with the advent of new longer-acting formulations. Emerging long-term outcomes of GnRHa administration with regards to obesity, cardiovascular risk factors and fertility are reassuring. Despite these advancements, clinical care in CPP is hampered by the lack of well-designed controlled studies, and management decisions are frequently not supported by clear practice guidelines. Data in boys with CPP are limited and this article focuses on the diagnosis and management of CPP in girls, particularly, in those who present with thelarche at the age of 6-8 years.

Expanding the reproductive organ phenotype of CHD7-spectrum disorder.

CHD7 disorder is a multiple congenital anomaly syndrome with a highly variable phenotypic spectrum, and includes CHARGE syndrome. Internal and external genital phenotypes frequently seen in CHD7 disorder include cryptorchidism and micropenis in males, and vaginal hypoplasia in females, both thought to be secondary to hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Here, we report 14 deeply phenotyped individuals with known CHD7 variants (9 pathogenic/likely pathogenic and 5 VOUS) and a range of reproductive and endocrine phenotypes. Reproductive organ anomalies were observed in 8 of 14 individuals and were more commonly noted in males (7/7), most of whom presented with micropenis and/or cryptorchidism. Kallmann syndrome was commonly observed among adolescents and adults with CHD7 variants. Remarkably, one 46,XY individual presented with ambiguous genitalia, cryptorchidism with Müllerian structures including uterus, vagina and fallopian tubes, and one 46,XX female patient presented with absent vagina, uterus and ovaries. These cases expand the genital and reproductive phenotype of CHD7 disorder to include two individuals with genital/gonadal atypia (ambiguous genitalia), and one with Müllerian aplasia.

The Associations of Psychologic and Physiologic Manifestations of Parental Stress in Critical Congenital Heart Disease.

Background: The primary objective of this exploratory, feasibility study was to examine the relationships of self-reported perceived stressors and psychological stress responses with measures of the biomarker cortisol in parents of infants hospitalized after neonatal cardiac surgery for critical congenital heart disease (cCHD). Methods: This was a prospective, cross-sectional study of 28 biological mother-father dyads of neonates with cCHD using consecutive enrollment. In the postoperative period after neonatal cardiac surgery, parents provided awakening and diurnal saliva samples and self-report measures on stress, anxiety, depression, dyadic adjustment, and perceived severity of illness of their neonate. Results: Evaluable data, including salivary cortisol samples, were obtained for 27 of the 28 dyads enrolled in the study. Compared to fathers, mothers exhibited significantly higher mean cortisol values at wakeup (p = .032), 30-minute post-wakeup (p = .024), and bedtime (p = .010) timepoints. Anxiety and depressive symptoms were both significant predictors of awakening cortisol measures. Depressive symptoms were also a predictor of diurnal cortisol (p < .05). Stress arising from infant appearance and behavior was found to significantly predict cortisol awakening response (p = .0403). Conclusions: Findings suggest that cortisol may be an important biomarker in the examination of parent stress in the pediatric cardiac intensive care unit (PCICU), serving as a foundation for future study in this area. Furthermore, we have provided preliminary evidence of feasibility of including saliva collection in studies of highly stressed parents in a challenging environment.

Population-based Assessment of Cardiometabolic-related Diagnoses in Youth With Klinefelter Syndrome: A PEDSnet Study.

CONTEXT: Diabetes and cardiovascular diseases are common among men with Klinefelter syndrome (KS) and contribute to high morbidity and mortality. OBJECTIVE: To determine if cardiometabolic-related diagnoses are more prevalent among youth with KS than matched controls in a large population-based cohort. METHODS: Secondary data analysis of electronic health records from 6 pediatric institutions in the United States (PEDSnet). Patients included all youth with KS in the database (n = 1080) and 4497 youth without KS matched for sex, age (mean 13 years at last encounter), year of birth, race, ethnicity, insurance, site, and duration of care (mean 7 years). The main outcome measures were prevalence of 5 cardiometabolic-related outcomes: overweight/obesity, dyslipidemia, dysglycemia, hypertension, and liver dysfunction. RESULTS: The odds of overweight/obesity (OR 1.6; 95% CI 1.4-1.8), dyslipidemia (3.0; 2.2-3.9), and liver dysfunction (2.0; 1.6-2.5) were all higher in KS than in controls. Adjusting for covariates (obesity, testosterone treatment, and antipsychotic use) attenuated the effect of KS on these outcomes; however, boys with KS still had 45% greater odds of overweight/obesity (95% CI 1.2-1.7) and 70% greater odds of liver dysfunction (95% CI 1.3-2.2) than controls, and both dyslipidemia (1.6; 1.1-2.4) and dysglycemia (1.8; 1.1-3.2) were higher in KS but of borderline statistical significance when accounting for multiple comparisons. The odds of hypertension were not different between groups. CONCLUSION: This large, population-based cohort of youth with KS had a higher odds of most cardiometabolic-related diagnoses than matched controls.

Crinecerfont Lowers Elevated Hormone Markers in Adults With 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia.

CONTEXT: Classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD) is characterized by impaired cortisol synthesis and excess androgen production. Corticotropin-releasing factor type 1 receptor (CRF1R) antagonism may decrease adrenal androgen production. OBJECTIVE: This work aimed to evaluate the safety, tolerability, and efficacy of crinecerfont (NBI-74788), a selective CRF1R antagonist, in 21OHD. METHODS: This open-label, phase 2 study, with sequential cohort design (NCT03525886), took place in 6 centers in the United States. Participants included men and women, aged 18 to 50 years, with 21OHD. Interventions included 4 crinecerfont regimens, each administered orally for 14 consecutive days: 50 or 100 mg once daily at bedtime (cohorts 1 and 2, respectively); 100 mg once daily in the evening (cohort 3); and 100 mg twice daily (cohort 4). Participants could enroll in more than 1 cohort. Main outcomes included changes from baseline to day 14 in adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP), androstenedione, and testosterone. RESULTS: Eighteen participants (11 women, 7 men) were enrolled: cohort 1 (n = 8), cohort 2 (n = 7), cohort 3 (n = 8), cohort 4 (n = 8). Mean age was 31 years; 94% were White. Median percent reductions were more than 60% for ACTH (-66%), 17OHP (-64%), and androstenedione (-64%) with crinecerfont 100 mg twice a day. In female participants, 73% (8/11) had a 50% or greater reduction in testosterone levels; male participants had median 26% to 65% decreases in androstenedione/testosterone ratios. CONCLUSION: Crinecerfont treatment for 14 days lowered ACTH and afforded clinically meaningful reductions of elevated 17OHP, androstenedione, testosterone (women), or androstenedione/testosterone ratio (men) in adults with 21OHD. Longer-term studies are required to evaluate the effects of crinecerfont on clinical end points of disordered steroidogenesis and glucocorticoid exposure in patients with 21OHD.

Case Report: Low Bone and Normal Lean Mass in Adolescents With Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome.

Introduction: Osteopenia and osteoporosis have been reported in adults with Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CAIS). Little is known about changes in bone mineral density (BMD) in adolescents with CAIS and whether it is affected by early gonadectomy. Body composition data have not been reported. Methods: Single-center, retrospective study of CAIS adolescents who underwent dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (Hologic, Horizon A). Body composition is presented as lean and fat mass indices (LMI, FMI). Z-scores for lumbar spine areal BMD (LBMD), total body less head (TBLH), bone mineral content (BMC), LMI, and FMI were calculated using female normative data. Results are expressed as median and min, max. Results: Six females with genetically confirmed CAIS were identified-one with intact gonads and five with history of gonadectomy at 2-11 months. In the subject with intact gonads, LBMD-Z and TBLH BMC-Z were -1.56 and -1.26, respectively, at age 16 years. Among those with gonadectomy, LBMD-Z was -1.8 (-3.59 to 0.49) at age 15.6 years (12-16.8) and decreased in all three subjects who had longitudinal follow-up despite hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Adherence to HRT was intermittent. LMI-Z and FMI-Z were 0.1 (-1.39 to 0.7) and 1.0 (0.22 to 1.49), respectively. Conclusions: These limited data indicate that adolescents with CAIS have bone mass deficit. Further studies are needed to understand the extent of BMD abnormalities and the effect of gonadectomy, especially early in childhood, and to establish the optimal HRT regimen for bone accrual. Data on lean mass are reassuring.

Behavioral Health Diagnoses in Youth with Differences of Sex Development or Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Compared with Controls: A PEDSnet Study.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the odds of a behavioral health diagnosis among youth with differences of sex development (DSD) or congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) compared with matched controls in the PEDSnet database. STUDY DESIGN: All youth with a diagnosis of DSD (n = 1216) or CAH (n = 1647) and at least 1 outpatient encounter were extracted from the PEDSnet database and propensity-score matched on 8 variables (1:4) with controls (n = 4864 and 6588, respectively) using multivariable logistic regression. The likelihood of having behavioral health diagnoses was examined using generalized estimating equations. RESULTS: Youth with DSD had higher odds of a behavioral health diagnosis (OR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.4-2.1; P < .0001) and neurodevelopmental diagnosis (OR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.4, 2.0; P < .0001) compared with matched controls. Youth with CAH did not have an increased odds of a behavioral health diagnosis (OR, 1.0; 95% CI, 0.9, 1.1; P = .9) compared with matched controls but did have higher odds of developmental delay (OR, 1.8; 95% CI, 1.4, 2.4; P < .0001). CONCLUSIONS: Youth with DSD diagnosis have higher odds of a behavioral health or neurodevelopmental diagnosis compared with matched controls. Youth with CAH have higher odds of developmental delay, highlighting the need for screening in both groups.

Perioperative stress dose steroid management of children with classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia: Too much or too little?

BACKGROUND: Children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) are at risk for adrenal crises in the perioperative period and require higher doses of glucocorticoids. However, there are no specific protocols detailing the appropriate stress dosing required for children with CAH undergoing surgery with anesthesia. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate CAH patients using our current hydrocortisone stress dose surgical protocol. We hypothesized that current clinical protocols may overestimate the endogenous response to perioperative stress. STUDY DESIGN: 14 children with CAH scheduled to have genital surgery and a control group of 10 unaffected children scheduled to have cardiac or urologic surgery (of a similar duration) were evaluated in a prospective observational study. Urinary free cortisol (UFC) and urinary 17-hydroxycorticosteroids (17-OHCS) per body surface area were measured in the postoperative period. RESULTS: UFC levels were significantly higher in CAH patients (115.8 ± 24.6 nmol/m2) than in controls (26.5 ± 12.2 nmol/m2), P < 0.05.17-OHCS levels were also higher in CAH patients than in controls (6.5 ± 0.5 nmol/m2 vs. 3.4 ± 0.5 nmol/m2), P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: In the immediate postoperative period, urinary cortisol and its metabolites are significantly higher in pediatric CAH patients receiving stress dose corticosteroids compared to controls. Results suggest that the amount of hydrocortisone given during our stress dose protocol may be higher than physiologic needs. Future dynamic studies are needed to determine appropriate perioperative and postoperative cortisol requirements in pediatric CAH patients in order to develop optimal stress dose regimens.

Tildacerfont in Adults With Classic Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Results from Two Phase 2 Studies.

CONTEXT: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD) is typically treated with lifelong supraphysiologic doses of glucocorticoids (GCs). Tildacerfont, a corticotropin-releasing factor type-1 receptor antagonist, may reduce excess androgen production, allowing for GC dose reduction. OBJECTIVE: Assess tildacerfont safety and efficacy. DESIGN AND SETTING: Two Phase 2 open-label studies. PATIENTS: Adults with 21OHD. INTERVENTION: Oral tildacerfont 200 to 1000 mg once daily (QD) (n = 10) or 100 to 200 mg twice daily (n = 9 and 7) for 2 weeks (Study 1), and 400 mg QD (n = 11) for 12 weeks (Study 2). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Efficacy was evaluated by changes from baseline at 8 am in adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP), and androstenedione (A4) according to baseline A4 ≤ 2× upper limit of normal (ULN) or A4 > 2× ULN. Safety was evaluated using adverse events (AEs) and laboratory assessments. RESULTS: In Study 1, evaluable participants with baseline A4 > 2× ULN (n = 11; 19-67 years, 55% female) had reductions from baseline in ACTH (-59.4% to -28.4%), 17-OHP (-38.3% to 0.3%), and A4 (-24.2% to -18.1%), with no clear dose response. In Study 2, participants with baseline A4 > 2× ULN (n = 5; 26-63 years, 40% female) had ~80% maximum mean reductions in biomarker levels. ACTH and A4 were normalized for 60% and 40%, respectively. In both studies, participants with baseline A4 ≤ 2× ULN maintained biomarker levels. AEs (in 53.6% of patients overall) included headache (7.1%) and upper respiratory tract infection (7.1%). CONCLUSIONS: For patients with 21OHD, up to 12 weeks of oral tildacerfont reduced or maintained key hormone biomarkers toward normal.

Cortical Bone Mass is Low in Boys with Klinefelter Syndrome and Improves with Oxandrolone.

CONTEXT: Klinefelter syndrome (KS) is the most common sex aneuploidy in men. Affected males have hypogonadism, and, as a result, face an increased risk for osteoporosis and fractures. Androgen therapy is standard in adolescents and adults with KS but has not been used earlier in childhood. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of androgen treatment on bone mass in children with KS. METHODS: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of oxandrolone (OX; 0.06 mg/kg daily; n = 38) versus placebo (PL; n = 40) for 2 years in boys with KS (ages 4-12 years). Changes in bone mass were examined by digital x-ray radiogrammetry, which determines the Bone Health Index (BHI) and standard deviation score (SDS). RESULTS: BHI SDS was similar between groups at baseline (-0.46 ±â€…1.1 vs -0.34 ±â€…1.0 OX vs PL, P > .05) and higher in the OX group at 2 years (-0.1 ±â€…1.3 vs -0.53 ±â€…0.9, OX vs PL, P < .01). At baseline, BHI SDS values of all subjects were not normally distributed with 25.7% of subjects plotted below -1 SDS (P < .001), suggesting a deficit in bone mass. In total, 13.5% of subjects had sustained a fracture and their BHI SDS was lower than those with no fractures (-1.6 ±â€…1.3 vs -0.3 ±â€…1.0, P = .004). CONCLUSION: Bone mass using BHI SDS is reduced in some children with KS and improves with OX. Since these individuals are at risk for osteoporosis, age-appropriate androgen replacement and future studies on bone health in children with KS should be further explored.

Testosterone Use in Adolescent Males: Current Practice and Unmet Needs.

Testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) is routinely prescribed in adolescent males with constitutional delay of growth and puberty (CDGP) or hypogonadism. With many new testosterone (T) formulations entering the market targeted for adults, we review current evidence and TRT options for adolescents and identify areas of unmet needs. We searched PubMed for articles (in English) on testosterone therapy, androgens, adolescence, and puberty in humans. The results indicate that short-term use of  T enanthate (TE) or oral  T undecanoate is safe and effective in inducing puberty and increasing growth in males with CDGP. Reassuring evidence is emerging on the use of transdermal  T to induce and maintain puberty. The long-term safety and efficacy of TRT for puberty completion and maintenance have not been established. Current  TRT regimens are based on consensus and expert opinion, but evidence-based guidelines are lacking. Limited guidance exists on when and how  T should be administered and optimal strategies for monitoring therapy once it is initiated. Only  TE and  T pellets are US Food and Drug Administration approved for use in adolescent males in the United States. Despite the introduction of a wide variety of new  T formulations, they are designed for adults, and their metered doses are difficult to titrate in adolescents. In conclusion, TRT in adolescent males is hindered by lack of long-term safety and efficacy data and limited options approved for use in this population. Additional research is needed to identify the route, dose, duration, and optimal timing for TRT in adolescents requiring androgen therapy.

Skin-to-Skin Care is Associated with Reduced Stress, Anxiety, and Salivary Cortisol and Improved Attachment for Mothers of Infants With Critical Congenital Heart Disease.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the effect of skin-to-skin care (SSC) on biobehavioral measures of stress (anxiety and salivary cortisol) and attachment (attachment scores and salivary oxytocin) of mothers before and after their infants' neonatal cardiac surgery. DESIGN: A prospective interventional, baseline response-paired pilot study. SETTING: Cardiac center of a large, metropolitan, freestanding children's hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Thirty women whose infants were hospitalized for neonatal cardiac surgery. METHODS: Participants acted as their own controls before, during, and after SSC at two time points: once before and once after surgery. We measured the stress response of mothers, as indicated by self-reported scores of anxiety and maternal salivary cortisol, and maternal-infant attachment, as indicated by self-reported scores and maternal salivary oxytocin. RESULTS: Significant reductions in self-reported scores of anxiety and salivary cortisol were found as a result of SSC at each time point, as well as increased self-reported attachment. No significant differences were found in oxytocin. CONCLUSION: Our findings provide initial evidence of the benefits of SSC as a nurse-led intervention to support maternal attachment and reduce physiologic and psychological stress responses in mothers of infants with critical congenital heart disease before and after neonatal cardiac surgery.

Diagnosis and Management of Endocrine Hypertension in Children and Adolescents.

Hypertension in childhood and adolescence has increased in prevalence. Interest in the disease was raised after the 2017 clinical practice guidelines of the American Academy of Paediatrics on the definition and classification of paediatric hypertension. Among the secondary causes of paediatric hypertension, endocrine causes are relatively rare but important due to their unique treatment options. Excess of catecholamine, glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, hyperaldosteronism, hyperthyroidism and other rare syndromes with specific genetic defects are endocrine disorders leading to paediatric and adolescent hypertension. Adipose tissue is currently considered the major endocrine gland. Obesity-related hypertension constitutes a distinct clinical entity leading to an endocrine disorder. The dramatic increase in the rates of obesity during childhood has resulted in a rise in obesity-related hypertension among children, leading to increased cardiovascular risk and associated increased morbidity and mortality. This review presents an overview of pathophysiology and diagnosis of hypertension resulting from hormonal excess, as well as obesity-related hypertension during childhood and adolescence, with a special focus on management.

Skin-to-Skin Care Is a Safe and Effective Comfort Measure for Infants Before and After Neonatal Cardiac Surgery.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the effect of skin-to-skin care on stress, pain, behavioral organization, and physiologic stability of infants with critical congenital heart disease before and after neonatal cardiac surgery. DESIGN: A baseline response-paired design was used, with infants acting as their own controls before, during, and after skin-to-skin care at two distinct time points: once in the preoperative period (T1) and once in the postoperative period (T2). SETTING: Cardiac ICU and step-down unit in a large metropolitan freestanding children's hospital. SUBJECTS: Convenience sample of 30 infants admitted preoperatively for critical congenital heart disease. INTERVENTIONS: Eligible infants were placed into skin-to-skin care for 1 hour with their biological mothers once each at T1 and T2. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Measurements of stress (salivary cortisol), pain and behavior state (COMFORT scale), and physiologic stability (vital signs) were assessed immediately before skin-to-skin care, 30 minutes into skin-to-skin care, and 30 minutes after skin-to-skin care ended.At both T1 and T2, infant pain scores were significantly decreased (p < 0.0001) and infants moved into a calmer behavior state (p < 0.0001) during skin-to-skin care as compared to baseline. At T1, infants also had significantly reduced heart rate (p = 0.002) and respiratory rate (p < 0.0001) and increased systolic blood pressure (p = 0.033) during skin-to-skin care. At both T1 and T2, infant cortisol remained stable and unchanged from pre-skin-to-skin care to during skin-to-skin care (p = 0.096 and p = 0.356, respectively), and significantly increased from during skin-to-skin care to post-skin-to-skin care (p = 0.001 and p = 0.023, respectively). Exploratory analysis revealed differences in cortisol reactivity for infants with higher baseline cortisol (> 0.3 µg/dL) versus lower (≤ 0.3 µg/dL) prior to skin-to-skin care. Infants with higher baseline cortisol at T2 experienced significantly reduced cortisol during skin-to-skin care (p = 0.025). No significant differences in demographics or baseline variables were found between infants in either group. CONCLUSIONS: Skin-to-skin care is a low-cost, low-risk intervention that promotes comfort and supports physiologic stability in infants before and after neonatal cardiac surgery.