Functional analysis and treatment of chronic hair pulling in a child with cri du chat syndrome: effects on co-occurring thumb sucking.

The relation between hair pulling and thumb sucking in a child with Cri du Chat syndrome was evaluated during the assessment and treatment of hair pulling. A functional analysis suggested that both behaviors were maintained by automatic reinforcement and possibly by attention. Treatment combining differential reinforcement (praise), response interruption, and access to toys decreased hair pulling. A corresponding decrease in thumb sucking was observed even though it was not directly treated. After an initial evaluation in a controlled setting, the treatment was extended to the participant's classroom setting. A 1-year follow up revealed that hair pulling, but not thumb sucking, remained at near-zero frequency. Clinical and research-to-practice implications are discussed.

Analysis of factors that affect responding in a two-response chain in children with developmental disabilities.

A sequence of behaviors consisting of appropriate responses, inappropriate responses, or a combination of both can be linked together in a behavior chain. Several operant processes may disrupt behavior chains. For example, one or more members of the behavior chain may be affected when reinforcement is withheld for the last response in the chain (extinction), when the last response is reinforced even if it occurs without the other responses in the chain (unchaining), or when access to the terminal reinforcer is available independent of responding (satiation). However, few studies have examined the effects of these types of procedures on responding that occurs in the context of behavior chains. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of three clinically relevant procedures and processes (i.e., extinction, satiation, and unchaining) on behaviors that occur as part of a behavior chain. Overall, extinction and satiation resulted in a decrease in both responses in the chain. During the unchaining procedure, decreases were observed in the first response in the chain but not in the second response.

Establishing and maintaining treatment effects with less intrusive consequences via a pairing procedure.

The generality and long-term maintenance of a pairing procedure designed to improve the efficacy of less intrusive procedures were evaluated for the treatment of problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement exhibited by 2 individuals with developmental disabilities. Results suggested that a less intrusive procedure could be established as a conditioned punisher by pairing it with an effective punisher contingent on problem behavior. Generalization across multiple therapists was demonstrated for both participants. However, generalization to another setting was not achieved for 1 participant until pairing was conducted in the second setting. Long-term maintenance was observed with 1 participant in the absence of further pairing trials. Maintenance via intermittent pairing trials was successful for the other participant.

A methodology for assessing the functions of emerging speech in children with developmental disabilities.

An approach based on Skinner's (1957) theory of verbal behavior has been developed to understand and teach elementary communication skills to children with autism and developmental disabilities (Sundberg & Partington, 1998). However, few studies have directly examined the characteristics of emerging language in children with developmental disabilities. The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate an assessment for identifying the elementary functions of vocal speech in children. Participants were 4 children with developmental disabilities, aged 6 years to 12 years, who exhibited at least one distinguishable vocal response (word or phrase) frequently in the natural environment. The assessment focused on three verbal operants delineated by Skinner (mand, tact, and intraverbal). One or more functions were identified for at least one vocal response of each child. Results suggested that this assessment would be useful for (a) evaluating Skinner's theory, (b) guiding decisions about language training for individual children, and (c) studying the nature of expressive language development in children with developmental disabilities.

Pyramidal training for families of children with problem behavior.

The pyramidal training model was extended to multiple family members of children with behavior disorders. Three primary caregivers were taught to implement individualized treatments for problem behavior. They were then taught how to use various instructional strategies (e.g., prompting, feedback) to teach 2 other family members to implement the treatment. Results showed that pyramidal training was effective in increasing caregiver implementation of treatments across three families.

Collateral effects of response blocking during the treatment of stereotypic behavior.

The collateral effects of response blocking were evaluated while treating stereotypic behavior in a woman diagnosed with autism. Blocking stereotypic behavior (head and tooth capping) was associated with decreases in leisure-item interaction and increases in another stereotypic response (hand wringing). Results suggested that the reduction in item interaction was due to adventitious punishment. Prompts to access an alternative source of reinforcement attenuated the side effects somewhat, but results suggested that the undesirable effects of response blocking may be fairly durable.

Reinforcement magnitude and responding during treatment with differential reinforcement.

Basic findings indicate that the amount or magnitude of reinforcement can influence free-operant responding prior to and during extinction. In this study, the relation between reinforcement magnitude and adaptive behavior was evaluated with 3 children as part of treatment with differential reinforcement. In the first experiment, a communicative response was shaped and maintained by the same reinforcer that was found to maintain problem behavior. Two reinforcement magnitudes (20-s or 60-s access to toys or escape from demands) were compared and found to be associated with similar levels of resistance to extinction. The relation between reinforcement magnitude and response maintenance was further evaluated in the second experiment by exposing the communicative response to 20-s or 300-s access to toys or escape. Results for 2 participants suggested that this factor may alter the duration of postreinforcement pauses.

On the status of knowledge for using punishment implications for treating behavior disorders.

In this paper, we review basic and applied findings on punishment and discuss the importance of conducting further research in this area. The characteristics of responding during punishment and numerous factors that interact with basic processes are delineated in conjunction with implications for the treatment of behavior disorders in clinical populations. We conclude that further understanding of punishment processes is needed to develop a highly systematic, effective technology of behavior change, including strategies for improving the efficacy of less intrusive procedures and for successfully fading treatment.