Outbreak strain characterisation and pharyngeal carriage detection following a protracted group B meningococcal outbreak in adolescents in South-West England.

Between April 2016 and September 2017, four cases of group B meningococcal disease were reported among sixth-form college students in Bristol, UK. Culture and non-culture whole genome sequencing was utilised and demonstrated that the four genomes of the responsible ST-41 strains clustered closely on a sub-lineage of ST-41/44 clonal complex. The outbreak resulted in two fatalities. A distinct social group associated with one of the cases was selected for vaccination with 4CMenB and pharyngeal swabbing. In vitro culturing, multiple real-time PCR assays (sodC, ctrA and siaDB) and a PorA PCR-sequencing assay were used to detect meningococcal colonisation and a carriage rate of 32.6% was observed. Furthermore, a high proportion of the pharyngeal swabs (78.3%) yielded a Factor H-Binding Protein (fHbp) nucleotide allele suggesting that the antigenic gene is prevalent among non-meningococcal flora, most likely Neisseria commensals. This may have implications for fHbp as a vaccine antigen should it be shown to influence bacterial colonisation.

Gestational and Lactational Exposure to an Environmentally Relevant Mixture of Brominated Flame Retardants Downregulates Junctional Proteins, Thyroid Hormone Receptor α1 Expression, and the Proliferation-Apoptosis Balance in Mammary Glands Post Puberty.

Mammary gland development requires hormonal regulation during puberty, pregnancy, and lactation. Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are endocrine disruptors; they are added to consumer products to satisfy flammability standards. Previously, we showed that gestational and lactational exposure to an environmentally relevant mixture of BFRs disrupts proteins of the adherens junctions in rat dam mammary glands at weaning. Here, we hypothesize that perinatal exposure to the same BFR mixture also disrupts junctional proteins and signaling pathways controlling mammary gland development in pups. Dams were exposed through diet to a BFR mixture based on the substances in house dust; doses of the mixture used were 0, 0.06, 20, or 60 mg/kg/day. Dams were exposed continuously beginning prior to mating until pups' weaning; female offspring were euthanized on postnatal day (PND) 21, 46, and 208. The lowest dose of BFRs significantly downregulated adherens junction proteins, E-cadherin, and ß-catenin, and the gap junction protein p-Cx43, as well as thyroid hormone receptor alpha 1 protein at PND 46. No effects were observed on estrogen or progesterone receptors. The low dose also resulted in a decrease in cleaved caspase-3, a downward trend in PARP levels, proteins involved in apoptosis, and an upward trend in proliferating cell nuclear antigen, a marker of proliferation. No effects were observed on ductal elongation or on the numbers of terminal end buds. Together, our results indicate that gestational and lactational exposure to an environmentally relevant mixture of BFRs disrupts cell-cell interactions, thyroid hormone homeostasis and the proliferation-apoptosis balance at PND 46, a critical stage for mammary gland development.

TRH Action Is Impaired in Pituitaries of Male IGSF1-Deficient Mice.

Loss-of-function mutations in the X-linked immunoglobulin superfamily, member 1 (IGSF1) gene cause central hypothyroidism. IGSF1 is a transmembrane glycoprotein of unknown function expressed in thyrotropin (TSH)-producing thyrotrope cells of the anterior pituitary gland. The protein is cotranslationally cleaved, with only its C-terminal domain (CTD) being trafficked to the plasma membrane. Most intragenic IGSF1 mutations in humans map to the CTD. In this study, we used CRISPR-Cas9 to introduce a loss-of-function mutation into the IGSF1-CTD in mice. The modified allele encodes a truncated protein that fails to traffic to the plasma membrane. Under standard laboratory conditions, Igsf1-deficient males exhibit normal serum TSH levels as well as normal numbers of TSH-expressing thyrotropes. However, pituitary expression of the TSH subunit genes and TSH protein content are reduced, as is expression of the receptor for thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). When challenged with exogenous TRH, Igsf1-deficient males release TSH, but to a significantly lesser extent than do their wild-type littermates. The mice show similarly attenuated TSH secretion when rendered profoundly hypothyroid with a low iodine diet supplemented with propylthiouracil. Collectively, these results indicate that impairments in pituitary TRH receptor expression and/or downstream signaling underlie central hypothyroidism in IGSF1 deficiency syndrome.

A Mixture Reflecting Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether (PBDE) Profiles Detected in Human Follicular Fluid Significantly Affects Steroidogenesis and Induces Oxidative Stress in a Female Human Granulosa Cell Line.

Brominated flame retardants are incorporated into consumer products to prevent flame propagation. These compounds leach into the domestic environment, resulting in chronic exposure. Pregnancy failure is associated with high levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), a major class of brominated flame retardants, in human follicular fluid, raising serious questions regarding their impact on female fertility. Our goal was to elucidate the effects of a mixture of PBDEs, similar to the profile found in human follicular fluid, on an immortalized human granulosa cell line, the KGN cell line. We showed that cell viability was altered and oxidative stress was induced as reflected by increased reactive oxygen species formation at 100 µM of the PBDE mixture. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that PBDE treatments of 1, 5, and 20 µM altered the expression of several genes involved in the reactive oxygen species signaling pathway. Significant dose-dependent reductions in progesterone and estradiol levels in the culture medium were measured after PBDE treatment; in parallel, the expression of genes involved in estradiol metabolism, namely CYP1A1, was up-regulated by 5 and 20 µM of the PBDE mixture. Treatment with 20 µM PBDE also increased the expression and secretion of the proinflammatory factor, IL-6, into the KGN cell culture medium. Our results demonstrate that PBDEs can alter human granulosa cell functions by inducing oxidative stress and disrupting steroidogenesis. These results indicate that PBDEs may be detrimental to ovarian functions and thus may adversely affect female reproductive health after chronic exposure.

Transient Maternal Hypothyroxinemia Potentiates the Transcriptional Response to Exogenous Thyroid Hormone in the Fetal Cerebral Cortex Before the Onset of Fetal Thyroid Function: A Messenger and MicroRNA Profiling Study.

Thyroid hormone (TH) is essential for brain development both before and after birth. We have used gene expression microarrays to identify TH-regulated genes in the fetal cerebral cortex prior to the onset of fetal thyroid function to better understand the role of TH in early cortical development. TH levels were transiently manipulated in pregnant mice by treatment with goitrogens from gestational day (GD) 13-16 and/or by injection of TH 12 h before sacrifice on GD 16. The transcriptional response to exogenous TH in the GD 16 fetal cortex was potentiated by transient goitrogen treatment, suggesting that the hypothyroxinemic brain is a different substrate upon which TH can act, or that robust compensatory mechanisms are induced by transient hypothyroxinemia. Several known TH-responsive genes were identified including Klf9, and several novel TH-responsive genes such as Appbp2, Ppap2b, and Fgfr1op2 were identified in which TH response elements were confirmed. We also identified specific microRNAs whose expression in the fetal cortex was affected by TH treatment, and determined that Ppap2b and Klf9 are the target genes of miR-16 and miR-106, respectively. Thus, a complex redundant functional network appears to coordinate TH-mediated gene expression in the developing brain.

Bisphenol A increases aP2 expression in 3T3L1 by enhancing the transcriptional activity of nuclear receptors at the promoter.

Environmental pollutants, such as bisphenol A (BPA), have the potential to affect the differentiation processes and the biology of the adipose tissue. The 3T3-L1 model is one of the murine cell models used extensively for the investigation of the molecular events that govern the differentiation of adipocytes from a committed preadipocyte to a mature, lipid laden adipocyte. Most of the studies investigating the effects of BPA on preadipocyte differentiation have investigated the effects of this chemical in the presence of an optimal differentiation cocktail containing high concentrations of the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone, conditions that result in 90% to 100% of differentiated adipocytes. Our studies employed the 3T3-L1 cell model in the absence of exogenous glucocorticoids. We show that BPA is able to increase the differentiation of the 3T3-L1 cells under these conditions. Furthermore, the effect of BPA was observed in the absence of the synthetic glucocorticoid (dexamethasone), a hormone known to be required for the differentiation of the 3T3-L1 cells. In addition, BPA upregulated the mRNA expression and protein levels of the terminal marker of adipogenesis the fatty acid binding protein (aP2) in these cells. Interestingly, the known modulators of adipogenesis such as the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ or CCAAT enhancer binding protein (C/EBP) α were not elevated at the mRNA or protein level in response to BPA. Furthermore, BPA upregulated the expression levels of the marker of adipogenesis aP2, through an effect on the transcriptional activity of C/EBPδ and the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) at its promoter.

Thyroid hormone response element half-site organization and its effect on thyroid hormone mediated transcription.

Thyroid hormone (TH) exerts its effects by binding to the thyroid hormone receptor (TR), which binds to TH response elements (TREs) to regulate target gene expression. We investigated the relative ability of liganded homodimers TR and retinoid X receptor (RXR), and the heterodimer TR/RXR, to regulate gene expression for the TRE half-site organizations: direct repeat 4 (DR4), inverted repeat 0 (IR0) and everted repeat 6 (ER6). Luciferase reporter assays using a DR4 TRE suggest that both the TR homodimer and TR/RXR heterodimer regulate luciferase expression in the presence of their respective ligands. However, in the presence of the IR0 TRE, transfection with TR/RXR and RXR alone increased luciferase activity and there was no effect of TR alone. The presence of 9-cis-retinoic acid was necessary for luciferase expression, whereas TH treatment alone was insufficient. For the ER6 TRE, transfection with TR/RXR, TR alone and RXR alone (in the presence of their respective ligands) all caused a significant increase in luciferase activity. When both ligands were present, transfection with both TR/RXR caused more activation. Finally, we investigated the efficacy of the TR-antagonist 1-850 in inhibiting transcription by TR or TR/RXR at DR4 and ER6 TREs. We found that 1-850 did not suppress luciferase activation in the presence of TR/RXR for the ER6 TRE, suggesting conformational changes of the ligand binding domain of the TR when bound to different TRE half-site organizations. Collectively, the findings indicate that there are fundamental differences between TRE configurations that affect nuclear receptor interactions with the response element and ability to bind ligands and antagonists.

Identification of thyroid hormone receptor binding sites in developing mouse cerebellum.

BACKGROUND: Thyroid hormones play an essential role in early vertebrate development as well as other key processes. One of its modes of action is to bind to the thyroid hormone receptor (TR) which, in turn, binds to thyroid response elements (TREs) in promoter regions of target genes. The sequence motif for TREs remains largely undefined as does the precise chromosomal location of the TR binding sites. A chromatin immunoprecipitation on microarray (ChIP-chip) experiment was conducted using mouse cerebellum post natal day (PND) 4 and PND15 for the thyroid hormone receptor (TR) beta 1 to map its binding sites on over 5000 gene promoter regions. We have performed a detailed computational analysis of these data. RESULTS: By analysing a recent spike-in study, the optimal normalization and peak identification approaches were determined for our dataset. Application of these techniques led to the identification of 211 ChIP-chip peaks enriched for TR binding in cerebellum samples. ChIP-PCR validation of 25 peaks led to the identification of 16 true positive TREs. Following a detailed literature review to identify all known mouse TREs, a position weight matrix (PWM) was created representing the classic TRE sequence motif. Various classes of promoter regions were investigated for the presence of this PWM, including permuted sequences, randomly selected promoter sequences, and genes known to be regulated by TH. We found that while the occurrence of the TRE motif is strongly correlated with gene regulation by TH for some genes, other TH-regulated genes do not exhibit an increased density of TRE half-site motifs. Furthermore, we demonstrate that an increase in the rate of occurrence of the half-site motifs does not always indicate the specific location of the TRE within the promoter region. To account for the fact that TR often operates as a dimer, we introduce a novel dual-threshold PWM scanning approach for identifying TREs with a true positive rate of 0.73 and a false positive rate of 0.2. Application of this approach to ChIP-chip peak regions revealed the presence of 85 putative TREs suitable for further in vitro validation. CONCLUSIONS: This study further elucidates TRß gene regulation in mouse cerebellum, with 211 promoter regions identified to bind to TR. While we have identified 85 putative TREs within these regions, future work will study other mechanisms of action that may mediate the remaining observed TR-binding activity.

Do perfluoroalkyl substances affect metabolic function and plasma lipids?--Analysis of the 2007-2009, Canadian Health Measures Survey (CHMS) Cycle 1.

BACKGROUND: Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) are man-made chemicals that are heat stable, non-flammable and able to repel both water and oils. Biomonitoring research shows global distribution in human, animal and aquatic environments of these chemicals. PFCs have been shown to activate the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors which play a large role in metabolism and the regulation of energy homeostasis. Previous epidemiological research has also suggested a potential role of PFCs on lipid and glucose metabolism. OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to examine the association between the levels of perfluorinated compounds perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) in plasma and metabolic function and plasma lipid levels. METHODS: Using cross-sectional data from the Canadian Health Measures Survey (Cycle 1 2007-2009) we examined the association in adults between plasma levels of PFOA, PFOS and PFHxS (n=2700) on cholesterol outcomes, metabolic syndrome and glucose homeostasis using multivariate linear and logistic regression models. RESULTS: We found some evidence of a significant association between perfluoroalkyl substances, notably PFHxS, with total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), total cholesterol/high density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio (TC/HDL) and non-HDL cholesterol as well as an elevated odds of high cholesterol. We found some associations with PFOA and PFOS in our unweighted models but these results did not remain significant after weighting for sampling strategy. We found no association with metabolic syndrome, or glucose homeostasis parameters. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed lower levels of PFOA and PFOS and slightly higher levels of PFHxS than other published population studies. Our results did not give significant evidence to support the association with cholesterol outcomes with PFOS and PFOA. However, we did observe several significant associations with the PFHxS and cholesterol outcomes (LDL, TC, NON-HDL, TC/HDL ratio).

Investigating the effects of dietary folic acid on sperm count, DNA damage and mutation in Balb/c mice.

To date, fewer than 50 mutagens have been studied for their ability to cause heritable mutations. The majority of those studied are classical mutagens like radiation and anti-cancer drugs. Very little is known about the dietary variables influencing germline mutation rates. Folate is essential for DNA synthesis and methylation and can impact chromatin structure. We therefore determined the effects of folic acid-deficient (0mg/kg), control (2mg/kg) and supplemented (6mg/kg) diets in early development and during lactation or post-weaning on mutation rates and chromatin quality in sperm of adult male Balb/c mice. The sperm chromatin structure assay and mutation frequencies at expanded simple tandem repeats (ESTRs) were used to evaluate germline DNA integrity. Treatment of a subset of mice fed the control diet with the mutagen ethylnitrosourea (ENU) at 8 weeks of age was included as a positive control. ENU treated mice exhibited decreased cauda sperm counts, increased DNA fragmentation and increased ESTR mutation frequencies relative to non-ENU treated mice fed the control diet. Male mice weaned to the folic acid deficient diet had decreased cauda sperm numbers, increased DNA fragmentation index, and increased ESTR mutation frequency. Folic acid deficiency in early development did not lead to changes in sperm counts or chromatin integrity in adult mice. Folic acid supplementation in early development or post-weaning did not affect germ cell measures. Therefore, adequate folic acid intake in adulthood is important for preventing chromatin damage and mutation in the male germline. Folic acid supplementation at the level achieved in this study does not improve nor is it detrimental to male germline chromatin integrity.

Exposure of pregnant mice to carbon black by intratracheal instillation: toxicogenomic effects in dams and offspring.

Exposure to nanomaterials (NM) during sensitive developmental stages may predispose organisms to diseases later in life. However, direct translocation of NM from mother to fetus through the placenta is limited. The present study tests the hypothesis that pulmonary exposure to NM and NM-induced response, such as inflammation during gestation, leads to secondary effects in the fetus. Time-mated C57BL/6BomTac mice were exposed by intratracheal instillation to vehicle (Nanopure water) or one of three concentrations (2.75, 13.5 or 67 µg in 40 µl Nanopure water) of carbon black Printex 90 (CB) on gestational days 7, 10, 15 and 18, to final cumulative doses of 11, 54 or 268 µg/animal. Samples from a subset of male and female newborns were collected on postnatal day 2 (4 days after the last maternal exposure) and from dams 26 to 27 days post-exposure (post-weaning period). Histopathology, DNA microarrays, pathway-specific RT-PCR arrays, focussed RT-PCR, and tissue protein analysis were employed to characterize pulmonary response in dams exposed to CB during pregnancy. Hepatic gene expression in newborns was interpreted in light of the observed biological responses and gene expression changes arising in the lungs of dams following CB exposure. Although retention of CB particles was observed in dams from both the medium and the high dose groups, neutrophil-marked inflammation and altered expression of several cytokines and chemokines, both at the transcriptional and tissue protein levels, was significant only in the high dose group. Analysis of newborn livers by DNA microarrays revealed that female offspring were more sensitive to maternal exposure than male offspring. Cellular signalling, inflammation, cell cycle and lipid metabolism were among the biological pathways affected in female offspring. Males, however, responded with subtle changes in metabolism-related genes. Further investigation is required to determine the long-term health consequences of the gene expression changes in offspring and response to environmental stresses.

Thyroid hormone-regulated gene expression in juvenile mouse liver: identification of thyroid response elements using microarray profiling and in silico analyses.

BACKGROUND: Disruption of thyroid hormone signalling can alter growth, development and energy metabolism. Thyroid hormones exert their effects through interactions with thyroid receptors that directly bind thyroid response elements and can alter transcriptional activity of target genes. The effects of short-term thyroid hormone perturbation on hepatic mRNA transcription in juvenile mice were evaluated, with the goal of identifying genes containing active thyroid response elements. Thyroid hormone disruption was induced from postnatal day 12 to 15 by adding goitrogens to dams' drinking water (hypothyroid). A subgroup of thyroid hormone-disrupted pups received intraperitoneal injections of replacement thyroid hormones four hours prior to sacrifice (replacement). An additional group received only thyroid hormones four hours prior to sacrifice (hyperthyroid). Hepatic mRNA was extracted and hybridized to Agilent mouse microarrays. RESULTS: Transcriptional profiling enabled the identification of 28 genes that appeared to be under direct thyroid hormone-regulation. The regulatory regions of the genome adjacent to these genes were examined for half-site sequences that resemble known thyroid response elements. A bioinformatics search identified 33 thyroid response elements in the promoter regions of 13 different genes thought to be directly regulated by thyroid hormones. Thyroid response elements found in the promoter regions of Tor1a, 2310003H01Rik, Hect3d and Slc25a45 were further validated by confirming that the thyroid receptor is associated with these sequences in vivo and that it can bind directly to these sequences in vitro. Three different arrangements of thyroid response elements were identified. Some of these thyroid response elements were located far up-stream (> 7 kb) of the transcription start site of the regulated gene. CONCLUSIONS: Transcriptional profiling of thyroid hormone disrupted animals coupled with a novel bioinformatics search revealed new thyroid response elements associated with genes previously unknown to be responsive to thyroid hormone. The work provides insight into thyroid response element sequence motif characteristics.

Thyroid hormone may regulate mRNA abundance in liver by acting on microRNAs.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are extensively involved in diverse biological processes. However, very little is known about the role of miRNAs in mediating the action of thyroid hormones (TH). Appropriate TH levels are known to be critically important for development, differentiation and maintenance of metabolic balance in mammals. We induced transient hypothyroidism in juvenile mice by short-term exposure to methimazole and perchlorate from post natal day (PND) 12 to 15. The expression of miRNAs in the liver was analyzed using Taqman Low Density Arrays (containing up to 600 rodent miRNAs). We found the expression of 40 miRNAs was significantly altered in the livers of hypothyroid mice compared to euthyroid controls. Among the miRNAs, miRs-1, 206, 133a and 133b exhibited a massive increase in expression (50- to 500-fold). The regulation of TH on the expression of miRs-1, 206, 133a and 133b was confirmed in various mouse models including: chronic hypothyroid, short-term hyperthyroid and short-term hypothyroid followed by TH supplementation. TH regulation of these miRNAs was also confirmed in mouse hepatocyte AML 12 cells. The expression of precursors of miRs-1, 206, 133a and 133b were examined in AML 12 cells and shown to decrease after TH treatment, only pre-mir-206 and pre-mir-133b reached statistical significance. To identify the targets of these miRNAs, DNA microarrays were used to examine hepatic mRNA levels in the short-term hypothyroid mouse model relative to controls. We found transcripts from 92 known genes were significantly altered in these hypothyroid mice. Web-based target predication software (TargetScan and Microcosm) identified 14 of these transcripts as targets of miRs-1, 206, 133a and 133b. The vast majority of these mRNA targets were significantly down-regulated in hypothyroid mice, corresponding with the up-regulation of miRs-1, 206, 133a and 133b in hypothyroid mouse liver. To further investigate target genes, miR-206 was over-expressed in AML 12 cells. TH treatment of cells over-expressing miR-206 resulted in decreased miR-206 expression, and a significant increase in two predicted target genes, Mup1 and Gpd2. The results suggest that TH regulation of these genes may occur secondarily via miR-206. These studies provide new insight into the role of miRNAs in mediating TH regulation of gene expression.

Contribution of methylmercury, polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides to the toxicity of a contaminant mixture based on Canadian Arctic population blood profiles.

Human populations are simultaneously exposed to a variety of anthropogenic contaminants. However, despite extensive literature on animal exposure to single compounds, data on the toxicity of complex mixtures are scarce. The Northern Contaminant Mixture (NCM) was formulated to contain the 27 most abundant contaminants in the same relative proportions found in the blood of Canadian Arctic populations. Sprague-Dawley rat dams were dosed from the first day of gestation until weaning with methylmercury (MeHg), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) or organochlorines pesticides (OCs) administered either separately or together in the NCM. An additional control group for hypothyroxinemia was included by dosing dams with the goitrogen 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU). Offspring growth, survival, serum thyroxine and Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) levels, thyroid gland morphology, brain taurine content and cerebellum and hippocampus protein expression patterns resulting from such exposures were monitored. Pups' increased mortality rate and impaired growth observed in the NCM treatment group were attributed to MeHg, while decreased circulating thyroxine levels and perturbations of thyroid gland morphology were mostly attributable to PCBs. Interestingly, despite comparable reduction in serum thyroxine levels, PCBs and PTU exposures produced markedly different effects on pup's growth, serum TSH level and brain taurine content. Analysis of cerebellum and hippocampus protein expression patterns corroborated previous cerebellum gene expression data, as contaminant co-exposure in the NCM significantly masked the effects of individual components on protein two-dimensional electrophoresis patterns. Identification by MALDI-TOF/TOF MS of differentially expressed proteins involved notably in neuronal and mitochondrial functions provided clues on the cellular and molecular processes affected by these contaminant mixtures.

The covariation of multiple risk factors in primary care: a latent class analysis.

There is a need to advance the quality of healthcare by increasing knowledge about multiple risk factors and how to intervene to improve health outcomes. In an effort to better describe the presentation of multiple risks, this study involved a database review to describe the prevalence and covariation of multiple risk factors in individuals presenting to primary care. Patients with a primary care encounter from January 1, 2005 to June 30, 2005 (N = 10,043) were identified from the Department of Veteran's Affair's medical database and information about the following risk factors was extracted: alcohol use, psychiatric distress, body mass, smoking status, blood pressure, and posttraumatic stress. Exploratory and confirmatory latent class analyses identified three classes of individuals. Class 1 consisted of individuals with an overall lower level of risk for health problems, but a moderately high likelihood of elevated blood pressure. Individuals in Class 2 appeared to have the greatest need for intervention because they had a moderate to high likelihood of reporting at risk alcohol use, smoking, depression, and posttraumatic stress. Class 3 consisted of individuals reporting the co-occurrence of at risk alcohol use, smoking, and elevated blood pressure. Similar to past research, the findings highlight the need for addressing multiple risk factors in primary care. In addition, this study expands on the literature by identifying specific patterns of covariation among different risk factors that suggest avenues for research and program development.

Meeting report: measuring endocrine-sensitive endpoints within the first years of life.

An international workshop titled "Assessing Endocrine-Related Endpoints within the First Years of Life" was held 30 April-1 May 2007, in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Representatives from a number of pregnancy cohort studies in North America and Europe presented options for measuring various endocrine-sensitive endpoints in early life and discussed issues related to performing and using those measures. The workshop focused on measuring reproductive tract developmental endpoints [e.g., anogenital distance (AGD)], endocrine status, and infant anthropometry. To the extent possible, workshop participants strove to develop or recommend standardized measurements that would allow comparisons and pooling of data across studies. The recommended outcomes include thigh fat fold, breast size, vaginal cytology, AGD, location of the testis, testicular size, and growth of the penis, with most of the discussion focusing on the genital exam. Although a number of outcome measures recommended during the genital exam have been associated with exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals, little is known about how predictive these effects are of later reproductive health or other chronic health conditions.

Toxicological effects of in utero and lactational exposure of rats to a mixture of environmental contaminants detected in Canadian Arctic human populations.

As part of the program to investigate mixture effects of environmental pollutants, this study describes clinical, biochemical, and histopathological effects in rats perinatally exposed to a mixture of persistent organochlorine pollutants and methylmercury that simulates the blood contaminant profile of humans residing in the Canadian Arctic. Groups of pregnant rats were administered orally 0, 0.05, 0.5, or 5 mg/kg body weight (bw)/d of a reconstituted mixture of organochlorine pollutants (referred to as mixture hereafter) from gestational day (GD) 1 to postnatal day (PND) 23. Positive and vehicle controls were given Aroclor 1254 (Aroclor hereafter, 15 mg/kg bw) and corn oil (vehicle), respectively. After parturition, the pups were colled to 8 per litter on PND 4, and killed on PND 35, 77, or 350, when tissues were collected for analysis. Gestational and lactational exposure of rats to mixture up to 5 mg/kg bw produced adverse effects in the offspring, including growth suppression, decreased spleen and thymic weights, increased serum cholesterol and liver microsomal enzyme activities, lower liver retinoid levels, and histological changes in the liver, thyroid, and spleen. Histological changes in the liver consisted of hepatic inflammation, vacuolation, and hypertrophy, while alterations in the thyroid were characterized by hypertrophy and hyperplasia of follicles. The hepatic and thyroidal effects were mild even at the highest dose. The spleen showed a dose-dependent atrophy in the lymphoid nodules and periarteriolar lymphatic sheath regions. Aroclor produced effects similar to those seen in the highest mixture group. In summary, this study demonstrates that exposure to the reconstituted mixture at 5 mg/kg bw produced growth suppression, changes in organ weights, and biochemical and histopathological changes in liver, thyroid, and spleen. This study also demonstrated that the blood level in rats given the 5-mg/kg dose, where most of the effects were observed, is 100-fold higher than the blood level in the 0.05-mg/kg group, which is comparable to that found in humans living in the Canadian Arctic region.

Gas chromatography analysis of urinary alkoxyacetic acids as biomarkers of exposure to aliphatic alkyl ethers.

Analysis of alkoxyacetic acids has received considerable research interest in toxicology because these compounds have been reported as metabolites and biomarkers of exposure to widely used industrial chemicals such as alkyl-substituted ethylene glycols and other aliphatic ethers. This paper describes an improved method for the determination of methoxyacetic acid (MAA), ethoxyacetic acid (EAA), and butoxyacetic acid (BAA) in rat urine. Solid-phase extraction with Bakerbond(T) C18 bonded silica cartridges was successfully employed to isolate the acids from rat urine. The acids were then converted to methyl esters with diazomethane derivatization and analyzed using a gas chromatograph (GC) equipped with a mass spectrometry (MS) and a GC with flame ionization detector (FID). Employing GC-MS under selected ion monitoring detection, the lowest detection concentrations for MAA, EAA, and BAA were determined to be from 2 to 4 ng/mL urine in 1 mL of sample size. This method is 5 to 10 times more sensitive than that using GC-FID. The method described here is superior to the existing ones reported in the literature in that it employs an easy sample treatment procedure and gives much higher recoveries, making it suitable for routine assays. The utility of this new method was demonstrated in a toxicology study of aliphatic alkyl ethers.

Flow cytometric detection of tandem repeat mutations induced by various chemical classes.

To facilitate detection of genotoxicity from environmental mutagen exposure, we generated an in vitro enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) reactivation assay that quickly and effectively detects frameshift mutations in tandem repeat sequences (TRS). Two murine cell lines, C3H10T1/2 and mismatch repair deficient MC2a, were stably transfected with EGFP reporter plasmids in which the EGFP constructs contain TRS that put the EGFP sequence out of frame. These included several 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 bp repeat sequences, a control non-repetitive sequence and a human gene sequence containing a 4 bp repeat motif. Transfected cultures were exposed to five model mutagens and carcinogens: hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate (TPA), benzo-a-pyrene-diol-epoxide (BPDE), ethyl nitrosourea (ENU), 9-aminoacridine (9AA) and two controls: acetone and ethanol. Frameshift mutations resulted in green fluorescent revertants, as determined by flow cytometry, and were confirmed, for 9AA treatments, by sequencing. All five treatments with model agents induced statistically significant sequence- and exposure-dependent responses in MC2a cells and a negative response with the two negative control treatments, acetone and ethanol. Similar responses were seen in a smaller panel of treatments and plasmids in C3H10T1/2 cells. The mutation frequencies were higher in cells transfected with the plasmids containing TRS than those harbouring the control construct lacking repeats. The highest mutation frequencies were observed with H(2)O(2) and 9AA treatments, yielding up to a 50-fold difference between vehicle and highest concentration treatment. ENU, BPDE, and to a lesser extent TPA treatments, also showed a statistically significant exposure response. Results from these experiments reveal that the assay responds robustly to various classes of mutagenic substances, as well as to rodent carcinogens that are inactive in conventional mutation assays, and that responses are not linked to cytotoxicity. This assay is a promising approach for detecting chemically induced frameshifts within certain DNA sequences of interest, but further characterization and validation are required prior to general use in genotoxicity screening.