Endosymbiont population genomics sheds light on transmission mode, partner specificity, and stability of the scaly-foot snail holobiont.

The scaly-foot snail (Chrysomallon squamiferum) inhabiting deep-sea hydrothermal vents in the Indian Ocean relies on its sulphur-oxidising gammaproteobacterial endosymbionts for nutrition and energy. In this study, we investigate the specificity, transmission mode, and stability of multiple scaly-foot snail populations dwelling in five vent fields with considerably disparate geological, physical and chemical environmental conditions. Results of population genomics analyses reveal an incongruent phylogeny between the endosymbiont and mitochondrial genomes of the scaly-foot snails in the five vent fields sampled, indicating that the hosts obtain endosymbionts via horizontal transmission in each generation. However, the genetic homogeneity of many symbiont populations implies that vertical transmission cannot be ruled out either. Fluorescence in situ hybridisation of ovarian tissue yields symbiont signals around the oocytes, suggesting that vertical transmission co-occurs with horizontal transmission. Results of in situ environmental measurements and gene expression analyses from in situ fixed samples show that the snail host buffers the differences in environmental conditions to provide the endosymbionts with a stable intracellular micro-environment, where the symbionts serve key metabolic functions and benefit from the host's cushion. The mixed transmission mode, symbiont specificity at the species level, and stable intracellular environment provided by the host support the evolutionary, ecological, and physiological success of scaly-foot snail holobionts in different vents with unique environmental parameters.

Metatranscriptomics by In Situ RNA Stabilization Directly and Comprehensively Revealed Episymbiotic Microbial Communities of Deep-Sea Squat Lobsters.

Shinkaia crosnieri is an invertebrate that inhabits an area around deep-sea hydrothermal vents in the Okinawa Trough in Japan by harboring episymbiotic microbes as the primary nutrition. To reveal physiology and phylogenetic composition of the active episymbiotic populations, metatranscriptomics is expected to be a powerful approach. However, this has been hindered by substantial perturbation (e.g., RNA degradation) during time-consuming retrieval from the deep sea. Here, we conducted direct metatranscriptomic analysis of S. crosnieri episymbionts by applying in situ RNA stabilization equipment. As expected, we obtained RNA expression profiles that were substantially different from those obtained by conventional metatranscriptomics (i.e., stabilization after retrieval). The episymbiotic community members were dominated by three orders, namely, Thiotrichales, Methylococcales, and Campylobacterales, and the Campylobacterales members were mostly dominated by the Sulfurovum genus. At a finer phylogenetic scale, the episymbiotic communities on different host individuals shared many species, indicating that the episymbionts on each host individual are not descendants of a few founder cells but are horizontally exchanged. Furthermore, our analysis revealed the key metabolisms of the community: two carbon fixation pathways, a formaldehyde assimilation pathway, and utilization of five electron donors (sulfide, thiosulfate, sulfur, methane, and ammonia) and two electron accepters (oxygen and nitrate/nitrite). Importantly, it was suggested that Thiotrichales episymbionts can utilize intercellular sulfur globules even when sulfur compounds are not usable, possibly also in a detached and free-living state.IMPORTANCE Deep-sea hydrothermal vent ecosystems remain mysterious. To depict in detail the enigmatic life of chemosynthetic microbes, which are key primary producers in these ecosystems, metatranscriptomic analysis is expected to be a promising approach. However, this has been hindered by substantial perturbation (e.g., RNA degradation) during time-consuming retrieval from the deep sea. In this study, we conducted direct metatranscriptome analysis of microbial episymbionts of deep-sea squat lobsters (Shinkaia crosnieri) by applying in situ RNA stabilization equipment. Compared to conventional metatranscriptomics (i.e., RNA stabilization after retrieval), our method provided substantially different RNA expression profiles. Moreover, we discovered that S. crosnieri and its episymbiotic microbes constitute complex and resilient ecosystems, where closely related but various episymbionts are stably maintained by horizontal exchange and partly by their sulfur storage ability for survival even when sulfur compounds are not usable, likely also in a detached and free-living state.

The Scaly-foot Snail genome and implications for the origins of biomineralised armour.

The Scaly-foot Snail, Chrysomallon squamiferum, presents a combination of biomineralised features, reminiscent of enigmatic early fossil taxa with complex shells and sclerites such as sachtids, but in a recently-diverged living species which even has iron-infused hard parts. Thus the Scaly-foot Snail is an ideal model to study the genomic mechanisms underlying the evolutionary diversification of biomineralised armour. Here, we present a high-quality whole-genome assembly and tissue-specific transcriptomic data, and show that scale and shell formation in the Scaly-foot Snail employ independent subsets of 25 highly-expressed transcription factors. Comparisons with other lophotrochozoan genomes imply that this biomineralisation toolkit is ancient, though expression patterns differ across major lineages. We suggest that the ability of lophotrochozoan lineages to generate a wide range of hard parts, exemplified by the remarkable morphological disparity in Mollusca, draws on a capacity for dynamic modification of the expression and positioning of toolkit elements across the genome.

Dual energy metabolism of the Campylobacterota endosymbiont in the chemosynthetic snail Alviniconcha marisindica.

Some deep-sea chemosynthetic invertebrates and their symbiotic bacteria can use molecular hydrogen (H2) as their energy source. However, how much the chemosynthetic holobiont (endosymbiont-host association) physiologically depends on H2 oxidation has not yet been determined. Here, we demonstrate that the Campylobacterota endosymbionts of the gastropod Alviniconcha marisindica in the Kairei and Edmond fields (kAlv and eAlv populations, respectively) of the Indian Ocean, utilize H2 in response to their physical and environmental H2 conditions, although the 16S rRNA gene sequence of both the endosymbionts shared 99.6% identity. A thermodynamic calculation using in situ H2 and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) concentrations indicated that chemosynthetic symbiosis could be supported by metabolic energy via H2 oxidation, particularly for the kAlv holobiont. Metabolic activity measurements showed that both the living individuals and the gill tissues consumed H2 and H2S at similar levels. Moreover, a combination of fluorescence in situ hybridization, quantitative transcript analyses, and enzymatic activity measurements showed that the kAlv endosymbiont expressed the genes and enzymes for both H2- and sulfur-oxidations. These results suggest that both H2 and H2S could serve as the primary energy sources for the kAlv holobiont. The eAlv holobiont had the ability to utilize H2, but the gene expression and enzyme activity for hydrogenases were much lower than for sulfur-oxidation enzymes. These results suggest that the energy acquisitions of A. marisindica holobionts are dependent on H2- and sulfur-oxidation in the H2-enriched Kairei field and that the mechanism of dual metabolism is controlled by the in situ H2 concentration.

The making of natural iron sulfide nanoparticles in a hot vent snail.

Biomineralization in animals exclusively features oxygen-based minerals with a single exception of the scaly-foot gastropod Chrysomallon squamiferum, the only metazoan with an iron sulfide skeleton. This unique snail inhabits deep-sea hot vents and possesses scales infused with iron sulfide nanoparticles, including pyrite, giving it a characteristic metallic black sheen. Since the scaly-foot is capable of making iron sulfide nanoparticles in its natural habitat at a relatively low temperature (∼15 °C) and in a chemically dynamic vent environment, elucidating its biomineralization pathways is expected to have significant industrial applications for the production of metal chalcogenide nanoparticles. Nevertheless, this biomineralization has remained a mystery for decades since the snail's discovery, except that it requires the environment to be rich in iron, with a white population lacking in iron sulfide known from a naturally iron-poor locality. Here, we reveal a biologically controlled mineralization mechanism employed by the scaly-foot snail to achieve this nanoparticle biomineralization, through δ34 S measurements and detailed electron-microscopic investigations of both natural scales and scales from the white population artificially incubated in an iron-rich environment. We show that the scaly-foot snail mediates biomineralization in its scales by supplying sulfur through channel-like columns in which reaction with iron ions diffusing inward from the surrounding vent fluid mineralizes iron sulfides.

Compositional and Functional Shifts in the Epibiotic Bacterial Community of Shinkaia crosnieri Baba & Williams (a Squat Lobster from Hydrothermal Vents) during Methane-Fed Rearing.

The hydrothermal vent squat lobster Shinkaia crosnieri Baba & Williams harbors an epibiotic bacterial community, which is numerically and functionally dominated by methanotrophs affiliated with Methylococcaceae and thioautotrophs affiliated with Sulfurovum and Thiotrichaceae. In the present study, shifts in the phylogenetic composition and metabolic function of the epibiont community were investigated using S. crosnieri individuals, which were reared for one year in a tank fed with methane as the energy and carbon source. The results obtained indicated that indigenous predominant thioautotrophic populations, such as Sulfurovum and Thiotrichaceae members, became absent, possibly due to the lack of an energy source, and epibiotic communities were dominated by indigenous Methylococcaceae and betaproteobacterial methylotrophic members that adapted to the conditions present during rearing for 12 months with a supply of methane. Furthermore, the overall phylogenetic composition of the epibiotic community markedly changed from a composition dominated by chemolithotrophs to one enriched with cross-feeding heterotrophs in addition to methanotrophs and methylotrophs. Thus, the composition and function of the S. crosnieri epibiotic bacterial community were strongly affected by the balance between the energy and carbon sources supplied for chemosynthetic production as well as that between the production and consumption of organic compounds.

Endemicity of the cosmopolitan mesophilic chemolithoautotroph Sulfurimonas at deep-sea hydrothermal vents.

Rich animal and microbial communities have been found at deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Although the biogeography of vent macrofauna is well understood, the corresponding knowledge about vent microbial biogeography is lacking. Here, we apply the multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) to assess the genetic variation of 109 Sulfurimonas strains with ⩾98% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity, which were isolated from four different geographical regions (Okinawa Trough (OT), Mariana Volcanic Arc and Trough (MVAT), Central Indian Ridge (CIR) and Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR)). Sequence typing based on 11 protein-coding genes revealed high genetic variation, including some allele types that are widespread within regions, resulting in 102 nucleotide sequence types (STs). This genetic variation was predominantly due to mutation rather than recombination. Phylogenetic analysis of the 11 concatenated genes showed a clear geographical isolation corresponding to the hydrothermal regions they originated from, suggesting limited dispersal. Genetic differentiation among Sulfurimonas populations was primarily influenced by geographical distance rather than gas composition of vent fluid or habitat, although in situ environmental conditions of each microhabitat could not be examined. Nevertheless, Sulfurimonas may possess a higher dispersal capability compared with deep-sea hydrothermal vent thermophiles. This is the first report on MLSA of deep-sea hydrothermal vent Epsilonproteobacteria, which is indicative of allopatric speciation.

Thiomicrospira hydrogeniphila sp. nov., an aerobic, hydrogen- and sulfur-oxidizing chemolithoautotroph isolated from a seawater tank containing a block of beef tallow.

A moderately psychrophilic, aerobic, hydrogen- and sulfur-oxidizing bacterium, designated strain MAS2T, was isolated from a tank containing coastal seawater from Tokyo Bay and a block of beef tallow added as organic material. Growth occurred under aerobic chemolithoautotrophic conditions in the presence of molecular hydrogen, thiosulfate, tetrathionate, elemental sulfur or sulfide as the sole energy source and bicarbonate as a carbon source. The isolate represented a Gram-staining-negative rod with a single polar flagellum and grew in artificial seawater medium with thiosulfate at 2-40 °C (optimum 30 °C). The isolate grew in media with thiosulfate at Na+ concentrations between 30 and 1380 mM (optimum 270 mM). MAS2T possessed C16 : 0, C16 : 1 and C18 : 1 as the major fatty acids. The G+C content of the genomic DNA was 39.6 mol%. The 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity analysis showed that the isolate represented a member of the genus Thiomicrospira within the class Gammaproteobacteria and was most closely related to Thiomicrospira frisia JB-A2T. On the basis of phenotypic and molecular properties, the isolate represents a novel species of the genus Thiomicrospira, for which the name Thiomicrospira hydrogeniphila sp. nov. is proposed (type strain, MAS2T=JCM 30760T=DSM 100274T).

Rapid growth of mineral deposits at artificial seafloor hydrothermal vents.

Seafloor massive sulphide deposits are potential resources for base and precious metals (Cu-Pb-Zn ± Ag ± Au), but difficulties in estimating precise reserves and assessing environmental impacts hinder exploration and commercial mining. Here, we report petrological and geochemical properties of sulphide chimneys less than 2 years old that formed where scientific boreholes vented hydrothermal fluids in the Iheya-North field, Okinawa Trough, in East China Sea. One of these infant chimneys, dominated by Cu-Pb-Zn-rich sulphide minerals, grew a height of 15 m within 25 months. Portions of infant chimneys are dominated by sulphate minerals. Some infant chimneys are sulphide-rich similar to high-grade Cu-Pb-Zn bodies on land, albeit with relatively low As and Sb concentrations. The high growth rate reaching the 15 m height within 25 months is attributed to the large hydrothermal vent more than 50 cm in diameter created by the borehole, which induced slow mixing with the ambient seawater and enhanced efficiency of sulphide deposition. These observations suggest the possibility of cultivating seafloor sulphide deposits and even controlling their growth and grades through manipulations of how to mix and quench hydrothermal fluids with the ambient seawater.

Effects of Hemagglutination Activity in the Serum of a Deep-Sea Vent Endemic Crab, Shinkaia Crosnieri, on Non-Symbiotic and Symbiotic Bacteria.

In deep-sea hydrothermal environments, most invertebrates associate with dense populations of symbiotic microorganisms in order to obtain nutrition. The molecular interactions between deep-sea animals and environmental microbes, including their symbionts, have not yet been elucidated in detail. Hemagglutinins/lectins, which are carbohydrate-binding proteins, have recently been reported to play important roles in a wide array of biological processes, including the recognition and control of non-self materials. We herein assessed hemagglutination activity in the serum of a deep-sea vent endemic crab, Shinkaia crosnieri, which harbors chemosynthetic epibionts on its plumose setae. Horse and rabbit erythrocytes were agglutinated using this serum (opt. pH 7.5 and opt. temperature 15°C). Agglutinating activity was inhibited by eight kinds of sugars and several divalent cations, did not require any divalent metal ions, and remained detectable even after heating the serum at 100°C for 30 min. By using fluorescently labeled serum, we demonstrated that deep-sea crab serum components bound to the epibionts even in the presence of sugars. This study represents the first immunological assessment of a deep-sea vent endemic crab and demonstrated the possibility of a non-lectin-mediated symbiont-host interaction.

Molecular evidence of digestion and absorption of epibiotic bacterial community by deep-sea crab Shinkaia crosnieri.

The hydrothermal vent crab Shinkaia crosnieri is considered to obtain nutrition from the epibiotic bacteria found on the setae, but previous studies have not shown how nutrients can be transferred from the epibionts to the host. In this study, microscopic observations of S. crosnieri intestinal components detected autofluorescent setae fragments and pigmentation derived from the digestion of epibionts in a dye-stained epibiont tracer experiment. An in vitro digestion experiment with epibiotic populations using an intestinal extract demonstrated the degradation of epibiotic cells by digestive enzymes. A phylogenetic analysis showed that many of the bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences obtained from the intestine were closely related to the sequences of the epibionts, thus they were probably derived from the epibionts. A stable isotope tracer experiment also indicated that (13)C assimilated by the epibionts provided a carbon (nutrition) source for the host. Both activity measurements and isotope studies showed that chemosynthetic metabolism by the gut microbial components were inactive. Together with the feeding behaviour of living S. crosnieri, these results indicate that S. crosnieri ingests the epibionts using maxillipeds and assimilates them via its digestive organs as a nutrient source. The results of this study elucidate the mechanism of nutritional transfer in ectosymbiosis between chemosynthetic bacteria and deep-sea invertebrates.

Analysis of the tryptophanase expression in Symbiobacterium thermophilum in a coculture with Geobacillus stearothermophilus.

The tryptophanase-positive Symbiobacterium thermophilum is a free-living syntrophic bacterium that grows effectively in a coculture with Geobacillus stearothermophilus. Our studies have shown that S. thermophilum growth depends on the high CO2 and low O2 condition established by the precedent growth of G. stearothermophilus. The use of an anoxic atmosphere containing high CO2 allows S. thermophilum to grow independently of G. stearothermophilus, but the cellular yield is ten times lower than that achieved in the coculture. In this study, we characterized the coculture-dependent expression and activity of tryptophanase in S. thermophilum. S. thermophilum cells accumulated a marked amount of indole in a coculture with G. stearothermophilus, but not in the bacterium's pure culture irrespective of the addition of tryptophan. S. thermophilum cells accumulated indole in its pure culture consisting of conditioned medium (medium supplied with culture supernatant of G. stearothermophilus). Proteomic analysis identified the protein specifically produced in the S. thermophilum cells grown in conditioned medium, which was a tryptophanase encoded by tna2 (STH439). An attempt to isolate the tryptophanase-inducing component from the culture supernatant of G. stearothermophilus was unsuccessful, but we did discover that the indole accumulation occurs when 10 mM bicarbonate is added to the medium. RT-PCR analysis showed that the addition of bicarbonate stimulated transcription of tna2. The transcriptional start site, identified within the tna2 promoter, was preceded by the -24 and -12 consensus sequences specified by an alternative sigma factor, σ(54). The evidence suggests that the transcription of some genes involved in amino acid metabolism is σ(54)-dependent, and that a bacterial enhancer-binding protein containing a PAS domain controls the transcription under the presence of high levels of bicarbonate.

Deep-sea Rhodococcus sp. BS-15, lacking the phytopathogenic fas genes, produces a novel glucotriose lipid biosurfactant.

Glycolipid biosurfactant-producing bacteria were isolated from deep-sea sediment collected from the Okinawa Trough. Isolate BS15 produced the largest amount of the glycolipid, generating up to 6.31 ± 1.15 g l(-1) after 4 days at 20 °C. Glucose was identified in the hydrolysate of the purified major component of the biosurfactant glycolipid. According to gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis, the hydrophobic moieties in the major component were hexadecanoate, octadecanoate, 3-hydroxyhexadecanoate, 2-hydroxyoctanoate, and succinate. The molecular weight of the purified major glycolipid was calculated to be 1,211, while (1)H and (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance spectra confirmed that the major component consisted of 2 mol of α-glucoside and 1 mol of ß-glucoside. The molecular structure was assigned as novel trisaccharide-type glycolipid biosurfactant, glucotriose lipids. The critical micelle concentration of the purified major glycolipid was 2.3 × 10(-6) M, with a surface tension of 29.5 mN m(-1). Phylogenetic analysis showed isolate BS15 was closely related to a Rhodococcus strains isolated from Antarctica, and to Rhodococcus fascians, a phytopathogen. PCR analysis showed that the fasA, fasB, fasC, fasD, fasE, and fasF genes, which are involved in phytohormone-like cytokinin production, were not present in the genome of BS15; however, analysis of a draft genome sequence of BS15 (5.5 Mb) identified regions with 31 %, 53 %, 46 %, 30 %, and 31 % DNA sequence identity to the fasA, fasB, fasC, and fasD genes, respectively.

Diversity and methane oxidation of active epibiotic methanotrophs on live Shinkaia crosnieri.

Shinkaia crosnieri is a galatheid crab that predominantly dwells in deep-sea hydrothermal systems in the Okinawa Trough, Japan. In this study, the phylogenetic diversity of active methanotrophs in the epibiotic microbial community on the setae of S. crosnieri was characterized by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) of a functional gene (pmoA) encoding a subunit of particulate methane monooxygenase. Phylogenetic analysis of pmoA transcript sequences revealed that the active epibiotic methanotrophs on S. crosnieri setae consisted of gammaproteobacterial type Ia and Ib methanotrophs. The effect of different RNA stabilization procedures on the abundance of pmoA and 16S rRNA transcripts in the epibiotic community was estimated by quantitative RT-PCR. Our novel RNA fixation method performed immediately after sampling effectively preserved cellular RNA assemblages, particularly labile mRNA populations, including pmoA mRNA. Methane consumption in live S. crosnieri was also estimated by continuous-flow incubation under atmospheric and in situ hydrostatic pressures, and provided a clear evidence of methane oxidation activity of the epibiotic microbial community, which was not significantly affected by hydrostatic pressure. Our study revealed the significant ecological function and nutritional contribution of epibiotic methanotrophs to the predominant S. crosnieri populations in the Okinawa Trough deep-sea hydrothermal systems. In conclusion, our study gave clear facts about diversity and methane oxidation of active methanotrophs in the epibiotic community associated with invertebrates.

Allying with armored snails: the complete genome of gammaproteobacterial endosymbiont.

Deep-sea vents harbor dense populations of various animals that have their specific symbiotic bacteria. Scaly-foot gastropods, which are snails with mineralized scales covering the sides of its foot, have a gammaproteobacterial endosymbiont in their enlarged esophageal glands and diverse epibionts on the surface of their scales. In this study, we report the complete genome sequencing of gammaproteobacterial endosymbiont. The endosymbiont genome displays features consistent with ongoing genome reduction such as large proportions of pseudogenes and insertion elements. The genome encodes functions commonly found in deep-sea vent chemoautotrophs such as sulfur oxidation and carbon fixation. Stable carbon isotope ((13)C)-labeling experiments confirmed the endosymbiont chemoautotrophy. The genome also includes an intact hydrogenase gene cluster that potentially has been horizontally transferred from phylogenetically distant bacteria. Notable findings include the presence and transcription of genes for flagellar assembly, through which proteins are potentially exported from bacterium to the host. Symbionts of snail individuals exhibited extreme genetic homogeneity, showing only two synonymous changes in 19 different genes (13 810 positions in total) determined for 32 individual gastropods collected from a single colony at one time. The extremely low genetic individuality in endosymbionts probably reflects that the stringent symbiont selection by host prevents the random genetic drift in the small population of horizontally transmitted symbiont. This study is the first complete genome analysis of gastropod endosymbiont and offers an opportunity to study genome evolution in a recently evolved endosymbiont.

Biogeography of Persephonella in deep-sea hydrothermal vents of the Western Pacific.

Deep-sea hydrothermal vent fields are areas on the seafloor with high biological productivity fueled by microbial chemosynthesis. Members of the Aquificales genus Persephonella are obligately chemosynthetic bacteria, and appear to be key players in carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen cycles in high temperature habitats at deep-sea vents. Although this group of bacteria has cosmopolitan distribution in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystem around the world, little is known about their population structure such as intraspecific genomic diversity, distribution pattern, and phenotypic diversity. We developed the multi-locus sequence analysis (MLSA) scheme for their genomic characterization. Sequence variation was determined in five housekeeping genes and one functional gene of 36 Persephonella hydrogeniphila strains originated from the Okinawa Trough and the South Mariana Trough (SNT). Although the strains share >98.7% similarities in 16S rRNA gene sequences, MLSA revealed 35 different sequence types (ST), indicating their extensive genomic diversity. A phylogenetic tree inferred from all concatenated gene sequences revealed the clustering of isolates according to the geographic origin. In addition, the phenotypic clustering pattern inferred from whole-cell matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/MS) analysis can be correlated to their MLSA clustering pattern. This study represents the first MLSA combined with phenotypic analysis indicative of allopatric speciation of deep-sea hydrothermal vent bacteria.

Effects of hydrogen sulfide on bacterial communities on the surface of galatheid crab, Shinkaia crosnieri, and in a bacterial mat cultured in rearing tanks.

To investigate the effects of H2S on the bacterial consortia on the galatheid crab, Shinkaia crosnieri, crabs of this species were cultivated in the laboratory under two different conditions, with and without hydrogen sulfide feeding. We developed a novel rearing tank system equipped with a feedback controller using a semiconductor sensor for hydrogen sulfide feeding. H2S aqueous concentration was successfully maintained between 5 to 40 µM for 80 d with the exception of brief periods of mechanical issues. According to real-time PCR analysis, the numbers of copies of partial 16S rRNA gene of an episymbiont of the crabs with H2S feeding was three orders of magnitude larger than that without feeding. By phylogenetic analysis of partial 16S rRNA gene, we detected several clones related to symbionts of deep sea organisms in Alphaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, Epsilonproteobacteria, and Flavobacteria, from a crab with H2S feeding. The symbiont-related clones were grouped into four different groups: Gammaproteobacteria in marine epibiont group I, Sulfurovum-affiliated Epsilonproteobacteria, Osedax mucofloris endosymbiont-affiliated Epsilonproteobacteria, and Flavobacteria closely related to CFB group bacterial epibiont of Rimicaris exoculata. The other phylotypes were related to Roseobacter, and some Flavobacteria, seemed to be free-living psychrophiles. Furthermore, white biofilm occurred on the surface of the rearing tank with H2S feeding. The biofilms contained various phylotypes of Gammaproteobacteria, Epsilonproteobacteria, and Flavobacteria, as determined by phylogenetic analysis. Interestingly, major clones were related to symbionts of Alviniconcha sp. type 2 and to endosymbionts of Osedax mucofloris, in Epsilonproteobacteria.

Cell-specific thioautotrophic productivity of epsilon-proteobacterial epibionts associated with Shinkaia crosnieri.

In this study, we report experimental evidence of the thioautotrophic activity of the epibiotic microbial community associated with the setae of Shinkaia crosnieri, a galatheid crab that is endemic to deep-sea hydrothermal systems in the Okinawa Trough in Japan. Microbial consumption of reduced sulfur compounds under in situ hydrostatic and atmospheric pressure provided evidence of sulfur-oxidizing activity by the epibiotic microbial community; the rate of sulfur oxidation was similar under in situ and decompressed conditions. Results of the microbial consumption of reduced sulfur compounds and tracer experiments using (13)C-labeled bicarbonate in the presence and absence of thiosulfate (used as a thioautotrophic substrate) convincingly demonstrated that the epibiotic microbial community on S. crosnieri drove primary production via an energy metabolism that was coupled with the oxidation of reductive sulfur compounds. A combination of tracer experiments, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and nano-scale secondary ion mass spectrometry (Nano-SIMS) indicated that the filamentous cells of the genus Sulfurovum belonging to the class Epsilonproteobacteria were thioautotrophs in the epibiotic community of S. crosnieri. In conclusion, our results strongly suggest that thioautotrophic production by Sulfurovum members present as the epibiotic microbial community play a predominant role in a probable nutritional ectosymbiosis with S. crosnieri.

Discovery of new hydrothermal activity and chemosynthetic fauna on the Central Indian Ridge at 18°-20° S.

Indian Ocean hydrothermal vents are believed to represent a novel biogeographic province, and are host to many novel genera and families of animals, potentially indigenous to Indian Ocean hydrothermal systems. In particular, since its discovery in 2001, much attention has been paid to a so-called 'scaly-foot' gastropod because of its unique iron-sulfide-coated dermal sclerites and the chemosynthetic symbioses in its various tissues. Despite increasing interest in the faunal assemblages at Indian Ocean hydrothermal vents, only two hydrothermal vent fields have been investigated in the Indian Ocean. Here we report two newly discovered hydrothermal vent fields, the Dodo and Solitaire fields, which are located in the Central Indian Ridge (CIR) segments 16 and 15, respectively. Chemosynthetic faunal communities at the Dodo field are emaciated in size and composition. In contrast, at the Solitaire field, we observed faunal communities that potentially contained almost all genera found at CIR hydrothermal environments to date, and even identified previously unreported taxa. Moreover, a new morphotype of 'scaly-foot' gastropod has been found at the Solitaire field. The newly discovered 'scaly-foot' gastropod has similar morphological and anatomical features to the previously reported type that inhabits the Kairei field, and both types of 'scaly-foot' gastropods genetically belong to the same species according to analyses of their COI gene and nuclear SSU rRNA gene sequences. However, the new morphotype completely lacks an iron-sulfide coating on the sclerites, which had been believed to be a novel feature restricted to 'scaly-foot' gastropods. Our new findings at the two newly discovered hydrothermal vent sites provide important insights into the biodiversity and biogeography of vent-endemic ecosystems in the Indian Ocean.

Diversity and function of epibiotic microbial communities on the galatheid crab, Shinkaia crosnieri.

The galatheid crab, Shinkaia crosnieri (Decapoda: Galatheidae), forms dense colonies in the Iheya North and Hatoma Knoll deep-sea hydrothermal fields and has numerous setae covered with filamentous epibiotic microorganisms. Molecular phylogenetic analyses revealed that the epibiotic communities in S. crosnieri consisted mainly of yet-uncultivated phylotypes within Epsilonproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria in both hydrothermal vent fields. Uptake experiments using (13)C-labeled tracers clearly demonstrated that both H(13)CO(3)(-) and (13)CH(4) were assimilated into not only the epibiotic microbial communities associated with the setae, but also the epibiont-free tissue of living S. crosnieri. In addition, the incorporation of H(13)CO(3)(-) into the microbial cells was strongly stimulated by the presence of reduced sulfur compounds but not by H(2). In conclusion, the uptake experiments suggested that sulfur-oxidizing chemolithoautotrophic and methanotrophic production by the epibionts provides the nutrition for S. crosnieri.