Leg Ulcers: A Report in Patients with Hemoglobin E Beta Thalassemia and Review of the Literature in Severe Beta Thalassemia.

BACKGROUND: Leg ulcers are a frequent complication in patients with the inherited hemoglobin disorders. In thalassemia, the literature is limited, and factors associated with the development of leg ulcers in hemoglobin E (HbE) beta thalassemia, the most common form of severe beta-thalassemia worldwide, have not previously been reported. METHODS: We reviewed all available medical records of patients with HbE beta thalassemia to document the onset of leg ulcers at the 2 largest treatment centers in Sri Lanka. We reviewed the literature to identify studies reporting outcomes of interventions for ulcers in severe thalassemia. RESULTS: Of a total of 255 actively registered patients with HbE thalassemia in the 2 centers, 196 patient charts were evaluable. A leg ulcer with a documented date of onset was recorded in 45 (22%) of 196 evaluable patients, aged (mean ± SEM) 22.2 ± 1.4 years. Most had been irregularly transfused; steady-state hemoglobin was 6.4 ± 0.2 g/dL. Treatment achieving healing in 17 patients included transfusions, antibiotics, oral zinc, wound toileting, and skin grafting. CONCLUSION: Leg ulcers may be more common in HbE beta thalassemia than in other forms of thalassemia. A systematic approach to treatment will be needed to document the prevalence and factors placing such patients at risk for leg ulcers. Controlled trials to evaluate the optimal treatment of this common complication are indicated.

Survival and complications in patients with haemoglobin E thalassaemia in Sri Lanka: a prospective, longitudinal cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, haemoglobin E ß-thalassaemia is the most common genotype of severe ß-thalassaemia. The paucity of long-term data for this form of thalassaemia makes evidence-based management challenging. We did a long-term observational study to define factors associated with survival and complications in patients with haemoglobin E thalassaemia. METHODS: In this prospective, longitudinal cohort study, we included all patients with haemoglobin E thalassaemia who attended the National Thalassaemia Centre in Kurunegala, Sri Lanka, between Jan 1, 1997, and Dec 31, 2001. Patients were assessed up to three times a year. Approaches to blood transfusions, splenectomy, and chelation therapy shifted during this period. Survival rates between groups were evaluated using Kaplan-Meier survival function estimate curves and Cox proportional hazards models were used to identify risk factors for mortality. FINDINGS: 109 patients (54 [50%] male; 55 [50%] female) were recruited and followed up for a median of 18 years (IQR 14-20). Median age at recruitment was 13 years (range 8-21). 32 (29%) patients died during follow-up. Median survival in all patients was 49 years (95% CI 45-not reached). Median survival was worse among male patients (hazard ratio [HR] 2·51, 95% CI 1·16-5·43), patients with a history of serious infections (adjusted HR 8·49, 2·90-24·84), and those with higher estimated body iron burdens as estimated by serum ferritin concentration (adjusted HR 1·03, 1·01-1·06 per 100 units). Splenectomy, while not associated with statistically significant increases in the risks of death or serious infections, ultimately did not eliminate a requirement for scheduled transfusions in 42 (58%) of 73 patients. Haemoglobin concentration less than or equal to 4·5 g/dL (vs concentration >4·5 g/dL), serum ferritin concentration more than 1300 µg/L (vs concentration ≤1300 µg/L), and liver iron concentration more than 5 mg/g dry weight of liver (vs concentration ≤5 mg/g) were associated with poorer survival. INTERPRETATION: Patients with haemoglobin E thalassaemia often had complications and shortened survival compared with that reported in high-resource countries for thalassaemia major and for thalassaemia intermedia not involving an allele for haemoglobin E. Approaches to management in this disorder remain uncertain and prospective studies should evaluate if altered transfusion regimens, with improved control of body iron, can improve survival. FUNDING: Wellcome Trust, Medical Research Council, US March of Dimes, Anthony Cerami and Ann Dunne Foundation for World Health, and Hemoglobal.

Transfusion-transmitted hepatitis C: A cluster of cases in transfusion-dependent thalassaemia patients in Sri Lanka.

OBJECTIVES: To report the clinical and virologic epidemiology of a recent epidemic of hepatitis C in thalassaemia patients in Sri Lanka. BACKGROUND: Transfusion-dependent thalassaemia patients remain at risk for hepatitis C virus (HCV). Here, we report a cluster of recent HCV infections in Sri Lankan thalassaemia patients and examine the phylogenetic relationship of viral sequences. METHODS: We conducted two prospective cross-sectional surveys of 513 patients in four Sri Lankan thalassaemia centres in 2014/2015 and re-surveyed one centre in 2016. We screened for anti-HCV antibodies using the CTK Biotech enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits and confirmed active infection by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for HCV-RNA. HCV genomes were sequenced by unbiased target enrichment. RESULTS: Anti-HCV antibodies were found in 116/513 (22.6%) of patients initially tested. Active hepatitis C infection was found in 26 patients with no cases of active hepatitis B infection. Of 26 patients with HCV, two were infected with genotype 1(a), and the rest had 3(a). In a single centre (Ragama), 122 patients (120 new cases and two previously tested, but negative) were retested for anti-HCV antibodies. 32/122 (26.2%) patients were seropositive. Twenty-three (23/122; 18.8%) of these new cases were confirmed by HCV PCR (all genotype 3[a]). CONCLUSION: There is a significant cluster of recent HCV cases in multiply transfused thalassaemia patients in several centres in Sri Lanka. Most of the viruses shared a close phylogenetic relationship. The results are consistent with recent continuing transfusion-transmitted HCV infection. Routine surveillance for HCV of chronically transfused patients is required irrespective of screening of blood products.

Marriage patterns in Sri Lanka and the prevalence of parental consanguinity in patients with ß-thalassaemia: a cross-sectional descriptive analysis.

Consanguineous marriages potentially play an important role in the transmission of ß-thalassaemia in many communities. This study aimed to determine the rate and socio-demographic associations of consanguineous marriages and to assess the influence on the prevalence of ß-thalassaemia in Sri Lanka. Three marriage registrars from each district of Sri Lanka were randomly selected to prospectively collect data on all couples who registered their marriage during a 6-month period starting 1st July 2009. Separately, the parents of patients with ß-thalassaemia were interviewed to identify consanguinity. A total of 5255 marriages were recorded from 22 districts. The average age at marriage was 27.3 (±6.1) years for males and 24.1 (±5.7) years for females. A majority (71%) of marriages were 'love' marriages, except in the Moor community where 84% were 'arranged' marriages. Overall, the national consanguinity rate was 7.4%. It was significantly higher among ethnic Tamils (22.4%) compared with Sinhalese (3.8%) and Moors (3.2%) (p < 0.001). Consanguinity rates were also higher in 'arranged' as opposed to 'love' marriages (11.7% vs 5.6%, p < 0.001). In patients with ß-thalassaemia, the overall consanguinity rate was 14.5%; it was highest among Tamils (44%) and lowest among Sinhalese (12%). Parental consanguinity among patients with ß-thalassaemia was double the national average. Although consanguinity is not the major factor in the transmission of the disease in the country, emphasis should be given to this significant practice when conducting ß-thalassaemia prevention and awareness campaigns, especially in high-prevalence communities.

A "One-Stop" Screening Protocol for Haemoglobinopathy Traits and Iron Deficiency in Sri Lanka.

Introduction: The high frequencies of carriers of severe haemoglobinopathies and of iron deficiency in Southeast Asia require reliable and affordable tests to improve on current screening procedures. Objectives: We evaluate a "one stop" approach using the THALCON dichlorophenolindophenol (DCIP) and one-tube osmotic fragility (OF) tests and measurement of Zinc Protoporphyrin (ZPP) to detect and distinguish HbE and ß-thalassaemia traits from iron deficiency. We compare findings with current screening practice in Sri Lanka that relies on the identification of low mean red cell volume and/or mean red cell hemoglobin for this purpose. Methods: Between November 2017 and May 2018, we undertook a cross-sectional survey of secondary school students in Gampaha district, Sri Lanka. The THALCON-DCIP and OF tests were compared to capillary electrophoresis (CE), used as a gold standard to detect haemoglobinopathies. ZPP was measured in whole blood. Plasma ferritin and C-reactive protein (CRP) were measured in students with a raised ZPP concentration. Results: We collected venous blood samples from 1,324/1,332 (99.4%) students. The median age of the students was 17 (IQR 16-18) years, all were Sinhalese and 814/1,324 (61.5%) were female. CE identified 3 students with HbE trait and 26 students with ß-thalassaemia trait. The THALCON-DCIP test was positive only in the 3 students with HbE (sensitivity 100%, 95% CI 29.2-100.0; specificity 100%, 95% CI 99.7-100.0). The THALCON-OF test identified all 26 students with ß-thalassaemia trait (sensitivity = 100%, 95% CI 86.8-100.0) and 287 students with a normal CE result (specificity = 77.9%; 95% CI 75.5-80.1). It was also positive in 2/3 (66.7%) students with HbE trait. Iron deficiency (ZPP > 70 µmol/mol heme) was present in 118/1,240 (9.5%) students with a normal hemoglobin genotype, all of whom had plasma ferritin <15 ng/ml and CRP <5 mg/L. Conclusion: This one-stop approach offers reliable and affordable population screening for both haemoglobinopathy traits and iron deficiency in resource-limited settings where these conditions are common and ensures that iron supplements are targeted only to those who require them. Further work is warranted to refine the OF test to reduce the number of false positive results.

A nationwide survey of hospital-based thalassemia patients and standards of care and a preliminary assessment of the national prevention program in Sri Lanka.

OBJECTIVES: Our aim was to describe the numbers and distribution of patients with different types of thalassemia and to assess the standards of care in all thalassemia treatment centers throughout Sri Lanka and the success of the ongoing prevention programme. METHODS: This cross-sectional island-wide survey was conducted by two trained medical graduates, who visited each thalassemia center to collect data from every patient, using a standardized form. Data was collected through review of patient registers and clinical records. RESULTS: We collected data on 1774 patients from 23 centers. 1219 patients (68.7%) had homozygous ß-thalassemia, 360 patients (20.3%) had hemoglobin E ß-thalassemia, and 50 patients (2%) had sickle ß-thalassemia. There were unacceptably high serum ferritin levels in almost all centers. The annual number of births of patients with ß-thalassaemia varied between 45-55, with little evidence of reduction over 19 years. CONCLUSIONS: Central coordination of the treatment and ultimately prevention of thalassemia is urgently needed in Sri Lanka. Development of expert centers with designated staff with sufficient resources will improve the quality of care and is preferred to managing patients in multiple small units.

Genotype-phenotype association analysis identifies the role of α globin genes in modulating disease severity of ß thalassaemia intermedia in Sri Lanka.

ß thalassaemia intermedia (ßTI) are a heterogeneous group of disorders known to be extremely phenotypically diverse. This group is more complex to manage as no definitive treatment guidelines exist unlike for ß thalassaemia major (ßTM). There are only a few studies looking at genotype phenotype associations of ßTI outside the Mediterranean region. The reasons for the diverse clinical phenotype in ßTI are unknown. We categorized fifty Sri Lankan patients diagnosed with ßTI as mild, moderate or severe according to published criteria. DNA samples were genotyped for ß thalassaemia mutations, α globin genotype and copy number and known genetic modifiers of haemoglobin F production. There were 26/50 (52.0%) in mild group and 12/50 (24.0%) each in moderate and sever categories. 18/26 (69.2%) classified as mild were ß heterozygotes and 17/18 (94.4%) had excess α globin genes. 11/12 (91.6%) classified as moderate were ß heterozygotes and 8/11 (72.2%) had excess α globin genes. In contrast, 8/12 (66.7%) classified as severe were ß homozygotes and 7/8(87.5%) had α globin gene deletions. In Sri Lanka, co-inheritance of either excess α globin genes in ß thalassaemia heterozygotes or α globin gene deletions in ß thalassaemia homozygotes is a significant factor in modulating disease severity.

Headache: an important symptom possibly linked to white matter lesions in thalassaemia.

Neurological manifestations are reported only occasionally in patients with thalassaemia and are given much less prominence than the complications related to anaemia and iron overload. White matter changes (WMCs) on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in patients with thalassaemia were first reported two decades ago but the significance of these lesions remains unclear. We studied the neurological and cognitive manifestations in 82 older patients with thalssaemia [25 Thalassaemia major (TM), 24 thalassaemia intermedia (TI) and 33 haemaglobin E ß thalassaemia (EBT)] and 80 controls, and found that headaches were more common in thalassaemia patients (50/82, 61%) than in controls (18/80, 22·5%: P < 0·001). WMCs on MRI were found in 20/82 (24·3%) patients and 2/29 (6·9%) controls had (P = 0·078). WMC were more common among those with headaches (17/50: 34%) than in those without headache (3/32; 9·3%) (P = 0·023). WMCs were not associated with reduction of cognition. Nevertheless, cognition was lower in the TI and EBT groups compared with those with TM (P = 0·002). The association of headache with WMC in thalassaemia has not been reported before and warrants further study.

The p.H63D allele of the HFE gene protects against low iron stores in Sri Lanka.

In hereditary hemochromatosis, iron overload is associated with homozygosity for the p.C282Y mutation. A second mutation, p.H63D, occurs at significant frequencies in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and Asia. Early studies in Sri Lanka indicated that the variant had arisen independently, suggesting that it had been the subject of selective pressure. However, its role in iron absorption is unclear. In a survey of 7526 Sri Lankan secondary school students, we determined hemoglobin genotype and measured red cell indices, serum ferritin, transferrin receptor, iron zinc protoporphyrin and hepcidin. These variables were compared according to the presence or absence of the p.H63D variant in a subset of 1313 students for whom DNA samples were available. Students were classified as having low red cell indices if they had an MCV <80 fl and/or MCH <27 pg. Hetero and/or homozygosity for the p.H63D variant was more common in students with normal than low red cell indices (16.4% and 11.9% respectively; p = 0.019). Iron biomarkers and red cell indices were greater in children with the p.H63D variant than in normal and this was statistically significant for MCV (p = 0.046). Our findings suggest that selective pressure by mild iron deficiency contributes to the high frequencies of the p.H63D variant.

Sickle cell disease.

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a group of inherited disorders caused by mutations in HBB, which encodes haemoglobin subunit ß. The incidence is estimated to be between 300,000 and 400,000 neonates globally each year, the majority in sub-Saharan Africa. Haemoglobin molecules that include mutant sickle ß-globin subunits can polymerize; erythrocytes that contain mostly haemoglobin polymers assume a sickled form and are prone to haemolysis. Other pathophysiological mechanisms that contribute to the SCD phenotype are vaso-occlusion and activation of the immune system. SCD is characterized by a remarkable phenotypic complexity. Common acute complications are acute pain events, acute chest syndrome and stroke; chronic complications (including chronic kidney disease) can damage all organs. Hydroxycarbamide, blood transfusions and haematopoietic stem cell transplantation can reduce the severity of the disease. Early diagnosis is crucial to improve survival, and universal newborn screening programmes have been implemented in some countries but are challenging in low-income, high-burden settings.

Haemoglobin variants, iron status and anaemia in Sri Lankan adolescents with low red cell indices: A cross sectional survey.

Iron deficiency complicates the use of red cell indices to screen for carriers of haemoglobin variants in many populations. In a cross sectional survey of 7526 secondary school students from 25 districts of Sri Lanka, 1963 (26.0%) students had low red cell indices. Iron deficiency, identified by low serum ferritin, was the major identifiable cause occurring in 550/1806 (30.5%) students. Low red cell indices occurred in iron-replete students with alpha-thalassaemia including those with single alpha-globin gene deletions. Anaemia and low red cell indices were also common in beta-thalassaemia trait. An unexpected finding was that low red cell indices occurred in 713 iron-replete students with a normal haemoglobin genotype. It is common practice to prescribe iron supplements to individuals with low red cell indices. Since low red cell indices were a feature of all forms of α thalassaemia and also of iron deficiency, in areas where both conditions are common, such as Sri Lanka, it is imperative to differentiate between the two, to allow targeted administration of iron supplements and avoid the possible deleterious effects of increased iron availability in iron replete individuals with low red cell indices due to other causes such as α thalassaemia.

The Evolving Spectrum of the Epidemiology of Thalassemia.

The thalassemias and other inherited disorders of hemoglobin are likely to remain a serious global health problem for the foreseeable future. Currently, they are most frequent in the tropical belt; an assessment of their true frequency and the likely cost of management for the governments of these countries will require a form of micromapping. Over recent years, there has been major progress toward better prevention and management of the thalassemias in richer countries; it is likely that, using the tools of molecular genetics, they will eventually be completely curable, although this is probably a long time in the future.

Thalassaemia.

Inherited haemoglobin disorders, including thalassaemia and sickle-cell disease, are the most common monogenic diseases worldwide. Several clinical forms of α-thalassaemia and ß-thalassaemia, including the co-inheritance of ß-thalassaemia with haemoglobin E resulting in haemoglobin E/ß-thalassaemia, have been described. The disease hallmarks include imbalance in the α/ß-globin chain ratio, ineffective erythropoiesis, chronic haemolytic anaemia, compensatory haemopoietic expansion, hypercoagulability, and increased intestinal iron absorption. The complications of iron overload, arising from transfusions that represent the basis of disease management in most patients with severe thalassaemia, might further complicate the clinical phenotype. These pathophysiological mechanisms lead to an array of clinical manifestations involving numerous organ systems. Conventional management primarily relies on transfusion and iron-chelation therapy, as well as splenectomy in specific cases. An increased understanding of the molecular and pathogenic factors that govern the disease process have suggested routes for the development of new therapeutic approaches that address the underlying chain imbalance, ineffective erythropoiesis, and iron dysregulation, with several agents being evaluated in preclinical models and clinical trials.

Iron status and anaemia in Sri Lankan secondary school children: A cross-sectional survey.

BACKGROUND: Iron deficiency, the most common micronutrient disorder and cause of anaemia globally, impairs growth, cognition, behaviour and resistance to infection. METHODS/RESULTS: As part of a national survey of inherited haemoglobin variants in 7526 students from 72 secondary schools purposefully selected from the 25 districts of Sri Lanka, we studied 5912 students with a normal haemoglobin genotype. Median age was 16.0 (IQR 15.0-17.0) years and 3189 (53.9%) students were males. Most students were Sinhalese (65.7%), with fewer Tamils (23.1%) and Muslims (11.2%). Anaemia occurred in 470 students and was more common in females (11.1%) than males (5.6%). Haemoglobin, serum ferritin, transferrin receptor and iron were determined in 1196 students with low red cell indices and a structured sample of those with normal red cell indices (n = 513). The findings were weighted to estimate the frequencies of iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia classified according to WHO criteria. Iron depletion (serum ferritin <15ug/ml) occurred in 19.2% and cellular iron deficiency (low serum ferritin and transferrin receptor >28.1 nmol/l) in 11.6% students. Iron deficiency anaemia (cellular iron deficiency with low haemoglobin) occurred in only 130/2794 (4.6%) females and 28/2789 (1.0%) males. Iron biomarkers were normal in 83/470 (14.6%) students with anaemia. In multiple regression analysis, the odds for iron depletion and cellular iron deficiency were about one-third in males compared with females, and the odds for iron deficiency anaemia were about one fifth in males compared to females. Tamil ethnicity and age <16 years increased the risk of all three stages of iron deficiency and living at high altitude significantly reduced the risk of iron depletion. CONCLUSIONS: Low iron status and anaemia remain common problems in Sri Lankan secondary school students especially females, younger students and the socioeconomically disadvantaged Tamil population. More research is needed to identify factors other than low iron status that contribute to anaemia in adolescents.

The future of academic haematology.

Recent advances in the basic medical sciences, particularly cell biology and genomics, have great promise for the future development of all aspects of haematological practice. They will also impinge on the hitherto neglected fields of haematology, including haematology involving the care of the rapidly increasing number of elderly patients and the complex problems of haematological practice in the developing countries. To obtain the maximum benefit from these new developments it will be necessary to review the patterns of training of haematologists of the future at every level. In short, it will be important to try to design and develop various career pathways for training haematologists including those who wish to work full time in basic research, combine research with clinical practice, or commit all their time to clinical work and teaching.

Hepcidin detects iron deficiency in Sri Lankan adolescents with a high burden of hemoglobinopathy: A diagnostic test accuracy study.

Anemia affects over 800 million women and children globally. Measurement of hepcidin as an index of iron status shows promise, but its diagnostic performance where hemoglobinopathies are prevalent is unclear. We evaluated the performance of hepcidin as a diagnostic test of iron deficiency in adolescents across Sri Lanka. We selected 2273 samples from a nationally representative cross-sectional study of 7526 secondary schoolchildren across Sri Lanka and analyzed associations between hepcidin and participant characteristics, iron indices, inflammatory markers, and hemoglobinopathy states. We evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of hepcidin as a test for iron deficiency with estimation of the AUCROC , sensitivity/specificity at each hepcidin cutoff, and calculation of the Youden Index to find the optimal threshold. Hepcidin was associated with ferritin, sTfR, and hemoglobin. The AUCROC for hepcidin as a test of iron deficiency was 0.78; hepcidin outperformed Hb and sTfR. The Youden index-predicted cutoff to detect iron deficiency (3.2 ng/mL) was similar to thresholds previously identified to predict iron utilization and identify deficiency in African populations. Neither age, sex, nor α- or ß-thalassemia trait affected diagnostic properties of hepcidin. Hepcidin pre-screening would prevent most iron-replete thalassemia carriers from receiving iron whilst still ensuring most iron deficient children were supplemented. Our data indicate that the physiological relationship between hepcidin and iron status transcends specific populations. Measurement of hepcidin in individuals or populations could establish the need for iron interventions. Am. J. Hematol. 92:196-203, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The evolutionary and clinical implications of the uneven distribution of the frequency of the inherited haemoglobin variants over short geographical distances.

Studies of the frequency of heterozygous carriers for common inherited diseases of haemoglobin in over 7500 adolescent children in 25 districts in Sri Lanka have disclosed a highly significant variation over very short geographical distances. A further analysis of these findings, including their relationship to the past frequency and distribution of malaria, climatic variation, altitude, ethnic origin and consanguinity rates, have provided evidence regarding the evolutionary basis for the variable distribution of these conditions over short distances. It is likely that the complex interplay between malaria and the environment, together with related ethnic and social issues, exists in many countries across the tropical belt. Hence, these observations emphasise the importance of micromapping heterozygote distributions in high-frequency countries in order to define their true burden and the facilities required for the prevention and management of the homozygous and compound heterozygous disorders that result from their interaction.

Introduction: The Complexity and Challenge of Preventing, Treating, and Managing Blood Diseases in the Developing Countries.

Managing hematologic disorders in developing countries poses problems not encountered in Western societies. The clinical features of hematologic conditions may be modified by malnutrition, chronic bacterial infection, or parasitic illness. Iron deficiency is the major factor in anemia worldwide. Anemia is more common in the wet season when malaria transmission peaks. After anemia, eosinophilia is the next most common hematologic abnormality in children in the tropics. Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus can cause hematologic abnormalities. The pattern of distribution of primary disorders of the blood varies among populations and some disorders are unique to certain parts of the world.

Progress Toward the Control and Management of the Thalassemias.

Because of the particularly high frequency of different severe forms of both α and ß thalassemia in Asia, the development of approaches for their prevention and management is particularly challenging. However, because of earlier partnerships with richer countries, so-called North/South partnerships, and help from their governments, considerable progress toward the better control of the thalassemias has been achieved in some countries. It is vital that the global health importance of the thalassemias and related disorders, by far the commonest genetic diseases, is emphasized to the appropriate international health agencies.