Gene expression profiling of leukemic cells and primary thymocytes predicts a signature for apoptotic sensitivity to glucocorticoids.

BACKGROUND: Glucocorticoids (GC's) play an integral role in treatment strategies designed to combat various forms of hematological malignancies. GCs also are powerful inhibitors of the immune system, through regulation of appropriate cytokines and by causing apoptosis of immature thymocytes. By activating the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), GCs evoke apoptosis through transcriptional regulation of a complex, interactive gene network over a period of time preceding activation of the apoptotic enzymes. In this study we used microarray technology to determine whether several disparate types of hematologic cells, all sensitive to GC-evoked apoptosis, would identify a common set of regulated genes. We compared gene expression signatures after treatment with two potent synthetic GCs, dexamethasone (Dex) and cortivazol (CVZ) using a panel of hematologic cells. Pediatric CD4+/CD8+ T-cell leukemia was represented by 3 CEM clones: two sensitive, CEM-C7-14 and CEM-C1-6, and one resistant, CEM-C1-15, to Dex. CEM-C1-15 was also tested when rendered GC-sensitive by several treatments. GC-sensitive pediatric B-cell leukemia was represented by the SUP-B15 line and adult B-cell leukemia by RS4;11 cells. Kasumi-1 cells gave an example of the rare Dex-sensitive acute myeloblastic leukemia (AML). To test the generality of the correlations in malignant cell gene sets, we compared with GC effects on mouse non-transformed thymocytes. RESULTS: We identified a set of genes regulated by GCs in all GC-sensitive malignant cells. A portion of these were also regulated in the thymocytes. Because we knew that the highly Dex-resistant CEM-C1-15 cells could be killed by CVZ, we tested these cells with the latter steroid and again found that many of the same genes were now regulated as in the inherently GC-sensitive cells. The same result was obtained when we converted the Dex-resistant clone to Dex-sensitive by treatment with forskolin (FSK), to activate the adenyl cyclase/protein kinase A pathway (PKA). CONCLUSION: Our results have identified small sets of genes that correlate with GC-sensitivity in cells from several hematologic malignancies. Some of these are also regulated in normal mouse thymocytes.

Comparison of two structurally diverse glucocorticoid receptor agonists: cortivazol selectively regulates a distinct set of genes separate from dexamethasone in CEM cells.

One goal of steroid research is precise differential regulation of gene expression by steroid hormone receptors through use of distinct ligands which modulate defined sets of cellular effects. Such "selective modulator" ligands are known for several receptors. Potent pyrazolo-glucocorticoid (11beta,16alpha)-21-(Acetyloxy)-11,17-dihydroxy-6,16-dimethyl-2'-phenyl-2'H-pregna-2,4,6-trieno[3,2-c]pyrazol-20-one) cortivazol activates the glucocorticoid receptor to regulate gene expression and can bring about apoptosis of leukemic CEM cells resistant to (9-fluoro-11,17-dihydroxy-17-(2-hydroxyacetyl)-10,13,16-trimethyl-6,7,8,11,12,14,15,16-octahydrocyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-one) dexamethasone. We therefore tested the hypothesis that cortivazol and dexamethasone regulate non-identical sets of genes in CEM cells. We found that while cortivazol and dexamethasone overlap in regulation of most genes, each steroid regulates an exclusive set of transcripts in clone CEM-C7-14 (sensitive to apoptosis by both dexamethasone and cortivazol) and clone CEM-C1-15 (dexamethasone-resistant but cortivazol-sensitive). Fifty-seven genes were regulated uniquely to a statistically significant extent by cortivazol in both clones. Many of the cortivazol specific genes are key components of various signal transduction pathways. Our data clearly show cortivazol to be a selective modulator of GR action.

Activation function 1 of glucocorticoid receptor binds TATA-binding protein in vitro and in vivo.

The mechanism through which the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) stimulates transcription is still unclear, although it is clear that the GR affects assembly of the transcriptional machinery. The binding of the TATA-binding protein (TBP) to the TATA-box is accepted as essential in this process. It is known that the GR can interact in vitro with TBP, but the direct interaction of TBP with GR has not been previously characterized quantitatively and has not been appreciated as an important step in assembling the transcriptional complex. Herein, we demonstrate that the TBP-GR interaction is functionally significant by characterizing the association of TBP and GR in vitro by a combination of techniques and confirming the role of this interaction in vivo. Combined analysis, using native gel electrophoresis, sedimentation equilibrium, and isothermal microcalorimetry titrations, characterize the stoichiometry, affinity, and thermodynamics of the TBP-GR interaction. TBP binds recombinant GR activation function 1 (AF1) with a 1:2 stoichiometry and a dissociation constant in the nanomolar range. In vivo fluorescence resonance energy transfer experiments, using fluorescently labeled TBP and various GR constructs, transiently transfected into CV-1 cells, show GR-TBP interactions, dependent on AF1. AF1-deletion variants showed fluorescence resonance energy transfer efficiencies on the level of coexpressed cyan fluorescent protein and yellow fluorescent protein, indicating that the interaction is dependent on AF1 domain. To demonstrate the functional role of the in vivo GR-TBP interaction, increased amounts of TBP expressed in vivo stimulated expression of GR-driven reporters and endogenous genes, and the effect was also specifically dependent on AF1.

p38 Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) is a key mediator in glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis of lymphoid cells: correlation between p38 MAPK activation and site-specific phosphorylation of the human glucocorticoid receptor at serine 211.

Glucocorticoids (GCs) induce apoptosis in lymphoid cells through activation of the GC receptor (GR). We have evaluated the role of p38, a MAPK, in lymphoid cell apoptosis upon treatment with the synthetic GCs dexamethasone (Dex) or deacylcortivazol (DAC). The highly conserved phosphoprotein p38 MAPK is activated by specific phosphorylation of its threonine180 and tyrosine182 residues. We show that Dex and DAC stimulate p38 MAPK phosphorylation and increase the mRNA of MAPK kinase 3, a specific immediate upstream activator of p38 MAPK. Enzymatic assays confirmed elevated activity of p38 MAPK. Pharmacological inhibition of p38 MAPK activity was protective against GC-driven apoptosis in human and mouse lymphoid cells. In contrast, inhibition of the MAPKs, ERK and cJun N-terminal kinase, enhanced apoptosis. Activated p38 MAPK phosphorylates specific downstream targets. Because phosphorylation of the GR is affected by MAPKs, we examined its phosphorylation state in our system. We found serine 211 of the human GR to be a substrate for p38 MAPK both in vitro and intracellularly. Mutation of this site to alanine greatly diminished GR-driven gene transcription and apoptosis. Our results clearly demonstrate a role for p38 MAPK signaling in the pathway of GC-induced apoptosis of lymphoid cells.

Gene networks in glucocorticoid-evoked apoptosis of leukemic cells.

To discover the genes responsible for the apoptosis evoked by glucocorticoids in leukemic lymphoid cells, we have begun gene array analysis on microchips. Three clones of CEM cells were compared: C7-14, C1-15 and C1-6. C7-14 and C1-15 are subclones from the original clones C7 (sensitive to apoptosis by glucocorticoids) and C1 (resistant). C1-6 is a spontaneous revertant to sensitivity from the C1 clone. Previously we presented data on the sets of genes whose expression is altered in these cell clones after 20 h exposure to dexamethasone (Dex). The two sensitive clones, which respond by undergoing apoptosis starting about 24h after Dex is added, both showed >2.5-fold induction of 39 genes and 2-fold reduction of expressed levels from 21 genes. C1-15, the resistant clone, showed alterations in a separate set of genes. In this paper, we present further analysis of the data on genes regulated in these cell clones after 20 h Dex and compare them with the genes regulated after 12h Dex. Some, but not all the genes found altered at 20 h are altered at 12h, consistent with our hypothesis that sequential gene regulation eventually provokes full apoptosis. We also compare the levels of basal gene expression in the three clones. At the basal level no single gene stands out, but small sets of genes differ >2-fold in basal expression between the two sensitive and the resistant clone. A number of the genes basally higher in the resistant clone are potentially anti-apoptotic. This is consistent with our hypothesis that the resistant cells have undergone a general shift in gene expression.

Gene expression profile of human lymphoid CEM cells sensitive and resistant to glucocorticoid-evoked apoptosis.

Three closely related clones of leukemic lymphoid CEM cells were compared for their gene expression responses to the glucocorticoid dexamethasone (Dex). All three contained receptors for Dex, but only two responded by undergoing apoptosis. After a time of exposure to Dex that ended late in the interval preceding onset of apoptosis, gene microarray analyses were carried out. The results indicate that the expression of a limited, distinctive set of genes was altered in the two apoptosis-prone clones, not in the resistant clone. That clone showed altered expression of different sets of genes, suggesting that a molecular switch converted patterns of gene expression between the two phenotypes: apoptosis-prone and apoptosis-resistant. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that altered expression of a distinctive network of genes after glucocorticoid administration ultimately triggers apoptosis of leukemic lymphoid cells. The altered genes identified provide new foci for study of their role in cell death.

Mutational analysis of DBD*--a unique antileukemic gene sequence.

DBD* is a novel gene encoding an 89 amino acid peptide that is constitutively lethal to leukemic cells. DBD* was derived from the DNA binding domain of the human glucocorticoid receptor by a frameshift that replaces the final 21 C-terminal amino acids of the domain. Previous studies suggested that DBD* no longer acted as the natural DNA binding domain. To confirm and extend these results, we mutated DBD* in 29 single amino acid positions, critical for the function in the native domain or of possible functional significance in the novel 21 amino acid C-terminal sequence. Steroid-resistant leukemic ICR-27-4 cells were transiently transfected by electroporation with each of the 29 mutants. Cell kill was evaluated by trypan blue dye exclusion, a WST-1 tetrazolium-based assay for cell respiration, propidium iodide exclusion, and Hoechst 33258 staining of chromatin. Eleven of the 29 point mutants increased, whereas four decreased antileukemic activity. The remainder had no effect on activity. The nonconcordances between these effects and native DNA binding domain function strongly suggest that the lethality of DBD* is distinct from that of the glucocorticoid receptor. Transfections of fragments of DBD* showed that optimal activity localized to the sequence for its C-terminal 32 amino acids.