Quality variation of maidong (Ophiopogon japonicus and Liriope spicata) - A HPTLC-based approach.

The tuberous roots of Ophiopogon japonicus and Liriope spicata are used for the same therapeutic purpose in traditional Chinese medicine and are collectively referred to as maidong medicine. Interestingly, it was observed that the price of tuberous roots varies depending on their location on the plant, and fibrous roots are usually discarded post-harvest. Mislabeling might be of concern due to similarities in morphological features between the two species. Moreover, paclobutrazol has been observed to be heavily applied during the production, and therefore might be of health concern. Overall, maidong might suffer from quality inconsistencies while its metabolomic complexity is influenced by growing region and cultivation practices, botanical species, and plant parts. To address these challenges, this study employed High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) approach, in which sample preparation and derivatization procedure were optimized to enable to capture more detailed and comprehensive metabolomic fingerprints. By integrating with rTLC algorithm and Multivariate Data Analysis (MVDA), an improved quality assessment was achieved. Samples were collected from four production regions and supplemented with commercial products from markets. The optimized HPTLC analysis recognized species- and region-specific metabolomic patterns of maidong, uncovering a 4% of mislabelled cases. Moreover, findings highlight the underexplored therapeutic potential of fibrous roots, and comparable therapeutic efficacy between different root types. Additionally, complemented by Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) for paclobutrazol residue evaluation, 24.66% of the commercial maidong samples surpassed maximum residue limits of paclobutrazol, raising safety concerns. This research represents a significant analytical advancement, offering a robust, cost-effective, and comprehensive method for maidong quality control, and paving the way for more strict residue regulation and updates to herbal pharmacopoeias and monographs.

Trends of Medicinal Plant Use over the Last 2000 Years in Central Europe.

Medicinal plant knowledge in Central Europe can be traced back from the present to antiquity, through written sources. Approximately 100 medicinal plant taxa have a history of continuous use. In this paper, we focus on use patterns over time and the link between historical and traditional uses with the current scientific evidence. We discuss our findings against the backdrop of changing eras and medicinal concepts. Based on use-records from totally 16 historical, popular and scientific herbals, we analyze how use categories of 102 medicinal plant taxa developed over time. Overall, 56 of the 102 taxa maintained continuous use throughout all time periods. For approximately 30% of the continuous uses, scientific evidence supporting their use exists, compared to 11% for recently added uses and 6% for discontinuous uses. Dermatology and gastroenterology are use categories that are relevant across all time periods. They are associated with a high diversity of medicinal taxa and continuously used medicinal species with scientific evidence. Antidotes, apotropaic (protective) magic, and humoral detoxification were important use categories in the past. New applications reflecting biomedical progress and epidemiological challenges are cardiovascular and tonic uses. Changes in medicinal concepts are mirrored in plant use and specifically in changes in the importance of use categories. Our finding supports the concept of social validation of plant uses, i.e., the assumption that longstanding use practice and tradition may suggest efficacy and safety.

Liriopogons (Genera Ophiopogon and Liriope, Asparagaceae): A Critical Review of the Phytochemical and Pharmacological Research.

The closely related genera Liriope and Ophiopogon (Asparagaceae), collectively known in English as liriopogons, have similar therapeutic uses in treating cough, rheumatoid arthritis, and cleaning heat. The main aim of this review is to understand the current phytochemical and pharmacological knowledge including an assessment of the quality of the scientific evidence. A literature search was conducted in line with PRISMA guidelines, by retrieving available information up to 2020 from five online resources. The bioactive metabolites of liriopogons include steroidal saponins, flavonoids, polysaccharides, organic acids, phenols. Cardiovascular protective, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, neuroprotective, anti-viral, anti-acute myeloid leukemia and hepatoprotective effects have been at the center of attention. From a toxicological perspective Ophiopogon japonicus seems to be safe. Some problems with the quality of the pharmacological evidence stand out including the application of excessive dose level and methodological problems in the design. Additionally, a reasonable link between local/traditional uses and pharmacological assessment is often vague or not reflected in the text. Future researches on liriopogons are required to use rigorous scientific approaches in research on evidence-based natural products for the future benefits of patients.

Local plant knowledge and its variation among farmer's families in the Napf region, Switzerland.

BACKGROUND: Local plant knowledge typically is unevenly distributed within a community. This knowledge variation is important in understanding people's relationship with their environment. Here we ask about knowledge variation among farmers' families in the Napf region of Switzerland. METHODS: In 2008 and 2009, 60 adults and children living on 14 farms were interviewed about known and used plant species, and the data analyzed for knowledge variation. The farms were chosen by random stratified sampling, and freelisting and semi-structured interviews were conducted individually in the local idiom. The data were organized in an access database and analyzed with descriptive statistics, correlations, Mann-Whitney U tests and cultural domain analysis. RESULTS: Totally, 456 folk taxa were listed, whereas frequently listed species are common meadow and forest species. Uses were indicated for 391 taxa, most of them culinary, followed by fodder, wood, medicinal and ornamental uses. Local plant knowledge correlates with age and gender. Due to professional specialization, adults above 20 years have broader plant knowledge than children and adolescents. This is true for almost all examined habitat and plant use categories except for toy uses. Women and men share a common body of plant knowledge especially about herbaceous grassland species and woody species. Specialized knowledge of men is linked to cattle fodder and the processing of wood, specialized knowledge of women concerns edible, medicinal and ornamental plants, often garden species, but also herbaceous forest species. CONCLUSION: In a rural region like the Napf, people retain a solid basis of plant knowledge. The variation of plant knowledge within farmers' families of this region reflects sociocultural patterns. As these patterns are changing and as (agro)biodiversity is declining, local plant knowledge in the Napf region is suspected to undergo a mainstreaming process.

Treating Chronic Wounds Using Photoactive Metabolites: Data Mining the Chinese Pharmacopoeia for Potential Lead Species.

Efficient wound treatment that addresses associated infections and inflammation remains one of the big unmet needs, especially in low- and middle-income countries. One strategy for securing better healthcare can be using medicinal plants if sufficient evidence on their safety and therapeutic benefits can be ascertained. A unique novel opportunity could be photo-enhanced wound treatment with a combination of light-sensitive plant preparations and local exposure to daylight. Data mining strategies using existing resources offer an excellent basis for developing such an approach with many potential plant candidates. In the present analysis, we researched the 535 botanical drugs included in the Chinese pharmacopeia and identified 183 medicinal plant species, 82 for treating open wounds caused by trauma and 101 for inflammatory skin conditions. After further screening for reports on the presence of known photoactive compounds, we determined a core group of 10 scientifically lesser-known botanical species that may potentially be developed into more widely used topical preparations for photodynamic treatment of infected wounds. Our predictive approach may contribute to developing a more evidence-based use of herbal medicines.

Traditional medicinal knowledge and practices among the tribal communities of Thakht-e-Sulaiman Hills, Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the medical material and practices of tribes in the western border areas of Pakistan. The local population has inhabited this remote and isolated area for centuries, and gained medicinal knowledge with personal experiences and knowledge learned from forefathers. Due to the geographical isolation of the communities in the Sulaiman hills of Pakistan and their unique culture, the area is of importance for exploration and assessment. METHODS: A total of 116 informants were interviewed in five foothill villages and the associated migratory mountain villages during 2010-2012 and 2015. Information was gathered mainly through semi-structured interviews and freelisting. Local diseases were categorized based on symptoms and affected organs. Descriptive statistics were used for data analysis. RESULTS: Depending on the type of illness, typically a pulse diagnoser or a religious specialist is consulted. Medicinal plant knowledge and use is mostly known and advised by elders within the family. A total of 44 plant species from 32 families (588 use reports), 7 animal species and 6 minerals and other sources (384 use reports) were documented as materia medica. Among the plants, the Lamiaceae is the most dominantly used plant family, followed by Pinaceae. The most frequently reported single species was Teucrium stocksianum. The most often mentioned diseases and treatments fall into the categories of gastrointestinal, ritual, and musculoskeletal diseases. The use of goat and sheep skin as medicine was pivotal in the local medicinal system. Remedies from animal parts and other biological and non-biological sources were mainly used for musculoskeletal ailments and ritual treatments. Overall, people rely on both traditional and biomedical medication and treatments and combination of these systems. CONCLUSION: This paper provides insight into the pluralistic medication system of rural communities of northwest Pakistan. It highlights the materia medica most commonly in use. A considerable part of the documented materia medica and local practices is part of an oral tradition and cannot be found in written sources or scientific articles. The gaining of new medicinal knowledge in the area was the good sign of continuation of traditional medicinal practices.

Medicinal plants from the Himalayan region for potential novel antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory skin treatments.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Adequate treatment of wounds remains one of the major medical needs globally, most notably in the regions with poor or limited access to health care. In many local and traditional systems of medicine, plants are often widely used for treating infected wounds. AIM AND OBJECTIVES: The overarching aim of this project was selection of potential species for use in a future treatment by combining with plant resources with aspects of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT). Specifically, we focussed on species used locally in the Himalayan region for the treatment of skin disorders and then assessed the existing pharmacological evidence for key species based on the published evidence available. METHODS: Database searches were performed to identify relevant publications describing local and traditional uses of plants in the Himalayan region of Bhutan, PR China, India, Nepal and Pakistan. Using the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), species were researched in terms of their distribution including in different climatic regions, focussing on species mostly found in higher climatic zones (based on the Köppen-Geiger climate classification). For species used in three or more countries and restricted to the higher altitudes, data on safety, pharmacology, as it relates to dermatological conditions, and phytochemistry were retrieved. KEY FINDINGS: The study identified a total of 606 species that are used in the treatment of various skin conditions often associated with infections reported in 84 articles. Common weeds like Ageratum conyzoides and Bidens pilosa, widely used and cultivated species like Centealla asiatiaca and Prunus armenica were excluded. This ultimately led to the identification of a core group of five widely used species restricted to the Himalayan region (Cedrus deodara, Nardostachys jatamansi, Pinus wallichiana, Pinus roxburghii and Valeriana jatamansi). CONCLUSIONS: Here we apply a novel approach comprising an assessment of the published information on the use of medicinal plants (i.e. local and traditional knowledge) in the context of their potential to be used in a biomedical form of clinical treatment - aPDT. Then, once sustainable sourcing based on access and benefit-sharing arrangements is in place, these species are investigated for their potential in wound treatment. Ultimately, the goal is to develop a new baseline for primary health care in some of the regions of the world with poor or limited access to health care.

Quality control of goji (fruits of Lycium barbarum L. and L. chinense Mill.): A value chain analysis perspective.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Goji (fruits of Lycium barbarum L. and L. chinense Mill., Solanaceae) have been used as a traditional food and medicine for hundreds of years in Asian countries and are now consumed globally. Quality of herbal medicines is critical for safe use and has been shown to be affected by value chains. AIM OF THE STUDY: Using a value chain (VC) framework, we aim at understanding the influence of different VC types on goji quality and revenue of stakeholders. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Participant observation and semi-structured interviews were conducted during five months of fieldwork in the main production areas in China with a total of 65 stakeholders. Quality of goji, behaviour and financial performance of stakeholders was documented and analysed for different VCs. RESULTS: Ten different types of VCs were identified. VCs with vertical integration and horizontal collaboration were found to have a more coherent quality control and better goji quality as well as improved stakeholders' financial performance. Vertical integration at different levels was found for independent farmer-based VCs, horizontal collaboration was found in the cooperative-based VCs. Full vertically integrated VCs were found in large-scale production. CONCLUSIONS: Goji quality and stakeholders' revenues are linked with different types of VCs which mirror stakeholders' behaviour driven by target markets. Considering their positive influence on quality and revenues, well-developed vertically integrated value chains are likely to become more important in the near future.

Quality Variation of Goji (Fruits of Lycium spp.) in China: A Comparative Morphological and Metabolomic Analysis.

Goji (fruits of Lycium barbarum L. and L. chinense Mill.) has been used in China as food and medicine for millennia, and globally has been consumed increasingly as a healthy food. Ningxia, with a semi-arid climate, always had the reputation of producing best goji quality (daodi area). Recently, the increasing market demand pushed the cultivation into new regions with different climates. We therefore ask: How does goji quality differ among production areas of various climatic regions? Historical records are used to trace the spread of goji production in China over time. Quality measurements of 51 samples were correlated with the four main production areas in China: monsoon (Hebei), semi-arid (Ningxia, Gansu, and Inner Mongolia), plateau (Qinghai) and arid regions (Xinjiang). We include morphological characteristics, sugar and polysaccharide content, antioxidant activity, and metabolomic profiling to compare goji among climatic regions. Goji cultivation probably began in the East (Hebei) of China around 100 CE and later shifted westward to the semi-arid regions. Goji from monsoon, plateau and arid regions differ according to its fruit morphology, whereas semi-arid goji cannot be separated from the other regions. L. chinense fruits, which are exclusively cultivated in Hebei (monsoon), are significantly lighter, smaller and brighter in color, while the heaviest and largest fruits (L. barbarum) stem from the plateau. The metabolomic profiling separates the two species but not the regions of cultivation. Lycium chinense and samples from the semi-arid regions have significantly (p < 0.01) lower sugar contents and L. chinense shows the highest antioxidant activity. Our results do not justify superiority of a specific production area over other areas. Instead it will be essential to distinguish goji from different regions based on the specific morphological and chemical traits with the aim to understand what its intended uses are.

Recommended standards for conducting and reporting ethnopharmacological field studies.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: What are the minimum methodological and conceptual requirements for an ethnopharmacological field study? How can the results of ethnopharmacological field studies be reported so that researchers with different backgrounds can draw on the results and develop new research questions and projects? And how should these field data be presented to get accepted in a scientific journal such as the Journal of Ethnopharmacology? The objective of this commentary is to create a reference that covers the basic standards necessary during planning, conducting and reporting of field research. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We focus on conducting and reporting ethnopharmacological field studies on medicinal plants or materia medica and associated knowledge of a specific people or region. The article highlights the most frequent problems and pitfalls, and draws on published literature, fieldwork experience, and extensive insights from peer-review of field studies. RESULTS: Research needs to be ethical and legal, and follow local and national regulations. Primary ethnopharmacological field data need to be collected and presented in a transparent and comprehensible way. In short this includes: 1) Relevant and concise research questions, 2) Thorough literature study encompassing all available information on the study site from different disciplines, 3) Appropriate methods to answer the research questions, 4) Proper plant use documentation, unambiguously linked to voucher specimens, and 5) Qualitative and quantitative analyses of the collected data, the latter relying on use-reports as basic units. CONCLUSION: Although not exhaustive, we provide an overview of the necessary main issues to consider for field research and data reporting including a list of minimal standards and recommendations for best practices. For methodological details and how to correctly apply specific methods, we refer to further reading of suggested textbooks and methods manuals.

Best practice in research: Consensus Statement on Ethnopharmacological Field Studies - ConSEFS.

BACKGROUND: Ethnopharmacological research aims at gathering information on local and traditional uses of plants and other natural substances. However, the approaches used and the methods employed vary, and while such a variability is desirable in terms of scientific diversity, research must adhere to well defined quality standards and reproducible methods OBJECTIVES: With ConSEFS (the Consensus Statement on Ethnopharmacological Field Studies) we want to define best-practice in developing, conducting and reporting field studies focusing on local and traditional uses of medicinal and food plants, including studies using a historical approach. METHODS: After first developing an initial draft the core group invited community-wide feedback from researchers both through a web-based consultation and a series of workshops at conferences during 2017. OUTCOMES: The consultation resulted in a large number of responses. Feedback was received via a weblink on the Journal of Ethnopharmacology's website (ca. 100 responses), other oral and written responses (ca. 50) and discussions with stakeholders at four conferences. The main outcome is a checklist, covering best practice for designing, implementing and recording ethnopharmacological field studies and historical studies. CONCLUSIONS: Prior to starting ethnopharmacological field research, it is essential that the authors are fully aware of the best practice in the field. For the first time in the field of ethnopharmacology a community-wide document defines guidelines for best practice on how to conduct and report such studies. It will need to be updated and further developed. While the feedback has been based on responses by many experienced researchers, there is a need to test it in practice by using it both in implementing and reporting field studies (or historical studies), and peer-review.

The genus Lycium as food and medicine: A botanical, ethnobotanical and historical review.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Lycium is widely distributed in the arid to semi-arid environments of North and South America, Africa, and Eurasia. In recent years, Lycium barbarum and L. chinense have been advertised as "superfood" with healthy properties. Despite of its popularity, there is a lack of an integrated and critical appraisal of the existing evidence for the use of Lycium. AIM OF THE STUDY: There is a need to understand: 1) Which species were used and how the uses of Lycium developed spatially and over time, 2) how uses differ among regions with different culture backgrounds, and 3) how traditional and current therapeutic and preventive health claims correlate with pharmacological findings. METHODS: Information was retrieved from floras, taxonomic, botanical, and ethnobotanical databases, research articles, recent editions of historical Chinese herbals over the last 2000 years, and pharmacopoeias. RESULTS: Of totally 97 species, 31 have recorded uses as food and/or medicine worldwide. Usually the fruits are used. While 85% of the Lycium species occur in the Americas and Africa, 26% of them are used, but 9 out of 14 species in Eurasia. In China, seven species and two varieties of the genus Lycium occur, of which four species have been used by different ethnic groups. Only L. barbarum and L. chinense have been transformed into globally traded commodities. In China, based on the name "", their use can be traced back over the last two millennia. Lycium fruits for anti-aging, improving eyesight and nourishment were documented already in 500C.E. (Mingyi Bielu). Recent findings explain the pharmacological foundations of the traditional uses. Especially polysaccharides, zeaxanthin dipalmitate, vitamins, betaine, and mixed extracts were reported to be responsible for anti-aging, improving eyesight, and anti-fatigue effects. CONCLUSIONS: The integration of historical, ethnobotanical, botanical, phytochemical and pharmacological data has enabled a detailed understanding of Lycium and its wider potential. It highlights that the focus so far has only been on two species and that the genus can potentially yield a wide range of other products with different properties.

Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels: Influence of Value Chain on Quality Criteria and Marker Compounds Ferulic Acid and Z-Ligustilide.

Background:Dang gui (Apiaceae; Angelica sinensis radix) is among the most often used Chinese medicinal plants. However, hardly anything is known about its value chain and its influence on the main marker compounds of the drug. The aim of this study is to investigate the value chain of dang gui in Gansu and Yunnan, and the analysis of the marker compounds ferulic acid and Z-ligustilide concentration in relation to quality criteria such as the production area and size of the roots. Methods: During six months of field research in China, semi-structured interviews with various stakeholders of the value chain were undertaken and plant material was collected. High-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) was used for semi-quantitative analysis of ferulic acid and Z-ligustilide. Results: Small-scale household cultivation prevails and in Gansu-in contrast to Yunnan-the cultivation of dang gui is often the main income source of farmers. Farmers and dealers use size and odor of the root as main quality criteria. For Chinese medicine doctors, Gansu as the production area is the main criterion. Higher amounts of ferulic acid in plant material from Yunnan compared to Gansu were found. Additionally, a negative relation of root length with both ferulic acid and Z-ligustilide as well as head diameter with ferulic acid were found. Conclusions: HPTLC is a valid method for semi-quantitative analysis of the marker compounds of dang gui. However, the two main marker compounds cannot explain why size and smell of the root or production area are seen as quality criteria. This hints at the inherent difficulty to correlate quality notions of medicinal plants with specific chemical compounds. With respect to this, more attention should be paid to quality in terms of cultivation and processing techniques.

Reverse ethnopharmacology and drug discovery.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Ethnopharmacological investigations of traditional medicines have made significant contributions to plant-derived drugs, as well as the advancement of pharmacology. Drug discovery from medicinal flora is more complex than generally acknowledged because plants are applied for different therapeutic indications within and across cultures. Therefore we propose the concept of "reverse ethnopharmacology" and compare biomedical uses of plant taxa with their ethnomedicinal and popular uses and test the effect of these on the probability of finding biomedical and specifically anticancer drugs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: For this analysis we use data on taxonomy and medical indications of plant derived biomedical drugs, clinical trial, and preclinical trial drug candidates published by Zhu et al. (2011) and compare their therapeutic indications with their ethnomedicinal and popular uses as reported in the NAPRALERT® database. Specifically, we test for increase or decrease of the probability of finding anticancer drugs based on ethnomedicinal and popular reports with Bayesian logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: Anticancer therapy resulted as the most frequent biomedicinal indication of the therapeutics derived from the 225 drug producing higher plant taxa and showed an association with ethnomedicinal and popular uses in women's medicine, which was also the most important popular use-category. Popular remedies for dysmenorrhoea, and uses as emmenagogues, abortifacients and contraceptives showed a positive effect on the probability of finding anticancer drugs. Another positive effect on the probability of discovering anticancer therapeutics was estimated for popular herbal drugs associated with the therapy of viral and bacterial infections, while the highest effect was found for popular remedies used to treat cancer symptoms. However, this latter effect seems to be influenced by the feedback loop and divulgence of biomedical knowledge on the popular level. CONCLUSION: We introduce the concept of reverse ethnopharmacology and show that it is possible to estimate the probability of finding biomedical drugs based on ethnomedicinal uses. The detected associations confirm the classical ethnopharmacological approach where a popular remedy for disease category X results in a biomedical drug for disease category X but does also point out the existence of cross-over relationships where popular remedies for disease category X result in biomedical therapeutics for disease category Y (Zhu et al., 2011).

Herbalists of Today's Switzerland and Their Plant Knowledge. A Preliminary Analysis from an Ethnobotanical Perspective.

BACKGROUND: Herbal medicine is a popular part of primary health care in Switzerland. Following an ethnobotanical approach, in this study we seek to identify Swiss herbalists with broad, empirical medicinal plant knowledge and use. We aim to consider different areas of the medicinal landscape including biomedicine, complementary and alternative medicine, and self-medication. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 61 expert interviews were conducted from February 2010 to November 2011. The transfer of knowledge was analyzed according to a Switzerland-related selection of historical and recent popular as well as scientific herbal books. RESULTS: A total of 254 medicinal plant species, belonging to 218 genera and 87 families, were recorded in 934 use reports. Predominantly leaves and flowers are used for the treatment of dermatological, respiratory, nervous, and gastrointestinal problems. Recent to historical herbal books are an important source of plant knowledge. CONCLUSIONS: Medicinal plants are used for self-medication and professional health care and despite different underlying medicinal concepts and philosophies, herbalists largely agree on the most important medicinal plant species.

Classifying diseases and remedies in ethnomedicine and ethnopharmacology.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Ethnopharmacology focuses on the understanding of local and indigenous use of medicines and therefore an emic approach is inevitable. Often, however, standard biomedical disease classifications are used to describe and analyse local diseases and remedies. Standard classifications might be a valid tool for cross-cultural comparisons and bioprospecting purposes but are not suitable to understand the local perception of disease and use of remedies. Different standard disease classification systems exist but their suitability for cross-cultural comparisons of ethnomedical data has never been assessed. Depending on the research focus, (I) ethnomedical, (II) cross-cultural, and (III) bioprospecting, we provide suggestions for the use of specific classification systems. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We analyse three different standard biomedical classification systems (the International Classification of Diseases (ICD); the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard (EBDCS); and the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC)), and discuss their value for categorizing diseases of ethnomedical systems and their suitability for cross-cultural research in ethnopharmacology. Moreover, based on the biomedical uses of all approved plant derived biomedical drugs, we propose a biomedical therapy-based classification system as a guide for the discovery of drugs from ethnopharmacological sources. RESULTS: Widely used standards, such as the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) by the WHO and the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard (EBDCS) are either technically challenging due to a categorisation system based on clinical examinations, which are usually not possible during field research (ICD) or lack clear biomedical criteria combining disorders and medical effects in an imprecise and confusing way (EBDCS). The International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC), also accepted by the WHO, has more in common with ethnomedical reality than the ICD or the EBDCS, as the categories are designed according to patient's perceptions and are less influenced by clinical medicine. Since diagnostic tools are not required, medical ethnobotanists and ethnopharmacologists can easily classify reported symptoms and complaints with the ICPC in one of the "chapters" based on 17 body systems, psychological and social problems. Also the biomedical uses of plant-derived drugs are classifiable into 17 broad organ- and therapy-based use-categories but can easily be divided into more specific subcategories. CONCLUSIONS: Depending on the research focus (I-III) we propose the following classification systems: I. Ethnomedicine: Ethnomedicine is culture-bound and local classifications have to be understood from an emic perspective. Consequently, the application of prefabricated, "one-size fits all" biomedical classification schemes is of limited value. II. Cross-cultural analysis: The ICPC is a suitable standard that can be applied but modified as required. III. Bioprospecting: We suggest a biomedical therapy-driven classification system with currently 17 use-categories based on biomedical uses of all approved plant derived natural product drugs.

Folkbotanical classification: morphological, ecological and utilitarian characterization of plants in the Napf region, Switzerland.

BACKGROUND: Discussions surrounding ethnobiological classification have been broad and diverse. One of the recurring questions is whether classification is mainly based on the "inherent structure of biological reality" or on cultural, especially utilitarian needs. So far, studies about ethnobotanical classification have mainly been done in indigenous societies. Comparable data from industrialized countries are scarce. In this paper, folkbotanical classification data from the Napf region in central Switzerland is analysed and cross-culturally compared. METHODS: Structured and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 60 adults and children chosen by random sampling. Descriptive statistics, t-tests and cultural domain analysis were used to analyze the data. RESULTS: Close to 500 folk taxa have been documented during field work. As life-form taxa appeared tree, bush, grass, herb, flower, and mushroom. Intermediate taxa mentioned regularly were sub-categories of the life form tree and bush, i.e. conifer, deciduous tree, fruit tree, stone fruits, pomaceous fruits, and berry bush. The rank of the folk generic was by far the largest with 316 taxa (85.4% monotypical). The specific rank contained 145 taxa, the varietal 14 taxa. The 475 generic, specific and varietal folk taxa could be assigned to 298 wild growing plant species, which make up 28.13% of the local flora, and to 213 cultivated plant species, subspecies and cultivars. Morphology, mainly life-form, fruits, leaves, and flowers, was the most important criterion for classifying plants. Other important criteria were their use (mainly edibility) and habitat (mainly meadow, forest and garden). The three criteria emerged spontaneously out of open questioning. CONCLUSION: The classification system of the Napf region is comparable to classification systems of indigenous societies, both in its shallow hierarchical structure and in the amount of recognized taxa. The classification of plants was mainly guided by morphology, habitat and use. The three aspects seem to be mutually linked for certain plant groups, which results in always the same groups, independent from the different sorting criteria. Sensory perception allows for a broader explanation of the known coincidence of morphology and use groups.

Ethnoveterinary medicinal plant knowledge and practice among the tribal communities of Thakht-e-Sulaiman hills, west Pakistan.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Pastoralist tribal communities inhabit Thakht-e-Sulaiman hills since centuries. In this remote and geographically isolated area, local people mainly rely on their natural environment for ethnoveterinary care. The area is therefore of special interest for the documentation and analysis of ethnoveterinary plant use and efficacy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Field work was conducted from 2010-2012 and 86 informants were interviewed. First, detailed unstructured interviews and group discussions were done with key informants, and second, successive oral freelisting and semi-structured interviews were performed. The veterinary diseases as described by the informants were categorized according to the symptoms they cause and the organs they affect. Information on the cited plants, informant consensus factor (ICF) and fidelity level (FL) were calculated based on use reports. RESULTS: A total of 22 ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species, belonging to 21 genera and 20 families with 559 use reports were recorded from two different ecological zones. More species were documented from the foothills but total use reports were higher for mountain species. Mainly leaves are used to prepare decoctions which are administered orally. Most use reports concerned skeleto-muscular problems followed by gastrointestinal ailments, but ritual uses and dermatological illnesses got highest ICF. Most often cited species were Pinus gerardina, P. wallichiana and Daphne papyracea while highest FL was obtained for Salix tetrasperma, Berberis calliobotrys and Litsea monopetala. Interestingly, 50% of the species have the same or similar use for humans. CONCLUSION: According to the local people, the most often mentioned species have high medicinal potential. They show a wide acceptance, broad application, multiple ways of preparation and administration. There is a need to conserve the knowledge of medicinal plant use in the Thakht-e-Sulaiman hills for future generations and to incorporate it into existing livestock health care services.

The use of the local flora in Switzerland: a comparison of past and recent medicinal plant knowledge.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: This analysis of documented medicinal plants of the Swiss Flora over the last two millennia provides a rich source of knowledge on earlier uses of plants and use patterns of the local flora. We ask which local plant species were used during different time periods of the last 2000 years and how the numbers of species and the use intensity of specific plant families, growth forms and habitats changed over time. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Totally 25 herbals from the antiquity, monastic medicine, Renaissance, early modern era and the contemporary time as well as five recent ethnobotanical studies were considered. Use patterns were analysed with the Bayesian approach. RESULTS: A total of 768 species, i.e. 32% of the vascular plants of the Swiss Flora have been documented as medicinal plants. Numbers increase until the monastic period (366 spp.) and the Renaissance (476) and remain relatively stable since then (modern and contemporary era: 477). But, 465 formerly documented species do not occur in the ethnobotanical studies and thus seem not to be used any more. Overall, 104 species are documented through all time periods. Archeophytes, trees and forest plants are generally overrepresented in herbals from all time periods while plants from above the timberline are generally underrepresented. Most widely used are the Lamiaceae and Apiaceae. CONCLUSION: A constant body of medicinal plant knowledge in Switzerland exists since ancient time. This knowledge was always influenced by knowledge from neighboring countries and no "typical Swiss specialties" seem to exist. Medicinal plants are not randomly chosen from the available flora. Certain species are deliberately introduced others are neglected. This process, which is still ongoing, can be traced back with the help of herbals to the antiquity.

Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolívar Province, Peru.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The study documents current medicinal plant knowledge and use in two Andean communities and depicts the dynamic nature of ethnobotanical relationships by illustrating cultural integration of biomedicine and local plant medicine into a complementary system. AIM OF THE STUDY: In order to elucidate the importance of medicinal plants, the following research questions were addressed: Which position do medicinal plants have in the local health care system? Which plants are used medicinally, and do they differ between the communities? Is their use supported pharmacologically? MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fieldwork was done for seven months in 2010. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 120 informants in Uchumarca and Pusac/San Vicente de Paúl, and the medicinal plant species mentioned by the informants were vouchered. RESULTS: In total, 2776 plant remedy use reports were recorded. Most people in both communities know at least some medicinal plants, usually from their parents, grandparents, sometimes from books. There are different types of local plant specialists, who are consulted above all for the treatment of diseases thought to have a magical origin or for recommendations of plants to treat minor diseases. Overall, 140 medicinal plants were documented, with a conformity of over 90% between the communities. The effective use of the most frequently cited medicinal plants is supported by scientific literature. Most uses were reported for the treatment of gastrointestinal (17%), nervous (14%), respiratory (14%), urological (13%) and dermatological diseases (8%); nervous diseases were more prevalent in the mountain community, while dermatological and urological diseases were more common in the valley. CONCLUSIONS: People combine medicinal plant use and biomedicine depending on the kind of disease, their beliefs, and their economic situation. The local use of different available medical resources is reflected by the combination of related epistemologies to explain disease causes. Medicinal plant use and biomedicine complement each other to form the local health care system.