Decisions on the quality of piano performance: Evaluation of self and others.

In common with other professional musicians, self-evaluation of practise and performance is an integral part of a pianist's professional life. They will also have opportunities to listen to and evaluate the performances of others based on their own criteria. These self-constructed perspectives towards to a piano performance will have an influence on both self-evaluation and external evaluation, but whether differently or similarly is not known. Consequently, this research study aimed to explore how judgements on the perceived quality of a performance are undertaken by professional standard pianists and what criteria are applied, both with regards their own performances as well as the performance of others. Participants were six professional pianists (3 men, 3 women) who were based in the United Kingdom (Mean age = 31.5 years old. SD = 5.1). They were asked to play individually six trials of a piece of R. Schumann's "Träumerei" Op. 15 No. 7 in a hired hall for recordings. Then, within 2 months, each participant was asked to come to a self-evaluation session to listen to and evaluate their own six recordings, using a Triadic method as a Repertory Grid. For the external evaluation focused session, the participants were asked to return again to evaluate a further six recordings made up of 'best' recordings as selected by each participant from their own individual self-evaluations. Analyses of the resultant data suggest that there was no significant difference between the participants in their overall ratings in the external phase, but that self-evaluation showed significant individual differences amongst several participants. The performance criteria in both self-evaluation and external evaluation predominately overlapped with each other in terms of musical factors, such as tone quality, phrasing, and pedalling. The ranking of the performances was highly correlated with perceptions of overall flow, tone quality and pedalling. It appears that pianists apply similar criteria to decide performance quality when evaluating their own performances as well as others.

Singing and Social Identity in Young Children.

A range of studies suggest that singing activities with young children can have a beneficial impact on other aspects of their development. However, there is little research examining the relationship between young children's singing and their developing social identity. In the current study, data were captured of young children's singing and social identity as part of a larger-scale, longitudinal evaluation of the nationwide Sing Up programme in England. Participants were 720 children aged 5-8 years old. The assessment of young children's singing ability employed an established measure and was undertaken individually. With adult support, the children were also asked to complete a simple questionnaire that focused on selected aspects of their social identity, both in general terms and also related to singing. Key themes embraced their attitudes to singing (at home, in school and in informal settings), singer identity (emotional engagement with singing and self-concept), and perceptions of self (self-efficacy, self-esteem, social integration). Comparative data were collected from young children of a similar age outside the programme. Findings suggested that the programme had a positive impact on children's singing ability, both overall and including the youngest children. The data analyses suggest that children could be identified as either "pupils with positive singing identity" or "pupils with less positive, or still developing singing identity." Overall, pupils with a more positive singer identity-irrespective of Sing Up-related experience-tended to report more positive attitudes toward singing at school and other settings, had higher perceived levels of self-esteem and social integration, as well as more positive evaluations of their singing ability. Furthermore, the research suggests that successful participation in high-quality singing activities is likely to have a positive impact on young children's singing ability and, by implication, such positive singing development will also be associated with aspects of self that are related to contexualised singer identity and their sense of social inclusion.

How Does Task Presentation Impact Motor Inhibition Performance in Young Children?

Peg tapping tasks are commonly used as a measure of inhibitory skill in young children. However, differences in the way the task is presented may influence children's performance. For example, if a peg tapping task is presented at regular intervals, children can entrain to the presentation pulse, which may in turn support their performance. This study assessed how speed and regularity of presentation may support or impair children's responses. An experimenter was filmed delivering the tapping task at two different speeds (120 bpm/3,000 ms per trial and 150 bpm/2,400 ms per trial). Additionally, they were filmed delivering the task at regular intervals (i.e., the onset of each trial was predictable), or at irregular intervals (the onset of each trial was unpredictable). N = 103 children aged between 5 and 6 years old were tested on the task. They completed one block with 20 regular interval trials and another block with 20 irregular interval trials. Block presentation order was randomized. Children who achieved over 90% accuracy on the task were then presented with two more blocks at 150 bpm. Children's response accuracy was measured. Our results show a difference in children's accuracy across all conditions with trials presented in an irregular manner producing poorer performance on the task. The study demonstrates how speed and regularity of presentation can affect children's scores on a tapping task used to measure inhibition. Demands on working memory, motor ability, and speed of processing are all affected by adjustments in presentation. Entrainment to a pulse is also a potential mechanism employed by children to support their performance on this task.

Which Sung Pitch Range is Best for Boys During Voice Change?

The question of how and what boys should sing during adolescent voice change has challenged educators and choir leaders for the last century. As the larynx enlarges during adolescence, most boys will follow the descending pitch of their speaking voice and move to singing vocal parts with a lower pitch range. Occasionally a boy may continue to sing in his treble (soprano) range while his larynx is growing and his speaking pitch is lowering. There is much opinion on the wisdom of such practices, but until now there has been no quantifiable evidence to illustrate the discussion. The established historic and cultural practices can now be reassessed in the light of quantitative analyses of vocal function. This longitudinal case study used electroglottographic measures from one boy over a 3-year period to investigate the efficiency of vocal fold adductory behavior in both prechange and midchange singing. In the first recording, he is aged 10 years old and has an unchanged voice. In the second recording, he is aged 13 years old and has a speaking voice in the Cooksey Stage III of voice change. Up to and including the time of the second recording, he had chosen to remain singing exclusively in his treble (soprano) range. The comparison between the two recordings of the observed regularity and efficiency of vocal fold adduction suggests that singing in this pitch range has become less healthy and effective; this is also represented in the overall perceived vocal comfort levels heard in the recordings. The implications for educators are that the longitudinal development of singing habits will be enhanced for boys who move to singing with their new baritone range as their larynx grows, rather than remaining in a treble range.

"A Bed of Nails": Professional Musicians' Accounts of the Experience of Performance Anxiety From a Phenomenological Perspective.

Most investigations of musical performance anxiety have employed quantitative methodologies. Whereas such methodologies can provide useful insights into the measurable aspects of the experience in a larger group of participants, the complexity, subtlety and individuality of the emotional experience and the importance of the individual's interpretation of it are often overlooked. This study employed a phenomenological approach to investigate the lived, subjective experience of performance anxiety, as described in professional musicians' narratives. Semi-structured interviews with four professional musicians (two males, two females) specializing in Western classical and jazz music genres were conducted and analyzed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). The analysis revealed the presence of four overarching themes: (1) Intensity of performance anxiety experience, (2) perceived effects, (3) development of coping strategies, and (4) achieving release from anxiety. Findings suggest that the lived experience of performance anxiety is multifaceted, characterized by a physical and a psychological dimension. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis is a useful research tool that can facilitate our understanding of the subjective experience of performance anxiety (how it is felt and understood at an individual level) and can thus be useful in the development of tailor-made intervention programs for musicians.

Beliefs and Values About Music in Early Childhood Education and Care: Perspectives From Practitioners.

This paper reports the findings of a study that aimed to identify the music beliefs and values of educators in early childhood education and care settings in Australia. The aims of the study were 2-fold: to adapt and pilot a survey of music beliefs and values which might be implemented subsequently nationally in childcare settings; and, secondly, to identify the music beliefs and values held by early childhood and care educators concerning music in children's learning. The research questions that guided this component of the study were: What is the profile of early childhood and care educators? What beliefs and values for music engagement are held by early childhood and care educators? What shapes early childhood and care educators' music beliefs and values? Findings indicated that educators' beliefs and values on all items are above the mid-point indicating overall positive attitudes toward music despite the majority having no formal qualifications in music or a history of instrumental performance and/or singing. Given the overall positive attitudes toward music we suggest there is enormous potential within this population for further professional learning and development targeted at music and its potential wider benefits in young children's learning and lives.

The Developing Female Chorister Voice: Case-Study Evidence of Musical Development.

The human singing voice changes throughout the lifespan and there are gender-specific variations that need to be taken into account. Life changes in terms of voice are different for females and males and this paper concentrates on the female singing voice in the context of choral singing. Case-study data from three choristers are presented relating to the changing female voice during puberty as part of a longitudinal study of female choristers in a major English Cathedral Choir School. In addition, discussion is presented on important considerations with respect to the female choral singing voice with a particular focus on specific choral aspects during rehearsals and performance.

Can Genre Be "Heard" in Scale as Well as Song Tasks? An Exploratory Study of Female Singing in Western Lyric and Musical Theater Styles.

OBJECTIVES: Using an empirical design, this study investigated perceptual and acoustic differences between the recorded vocal products of songs and scales of professional female singers of classical Western Lyric (WL) and non-legit Musical Theater (MT) styles. METHODS: A total of 54 audio-recorded samples of songs and scales from professional female singers were rated in a blind randomized testing process by seven expert listeners as being performed by either a WL or MT singer. Songs and scales that were accurately perceived by genre were then analyzed intra- and inter-genre using long-term average spectrum analysis. RESULTS: A high level of agreement was found between judges in ratings for both songs and scales according to genre (P < 0.0001). Judges were more successful in locating WL than MT, but accuracy was always >50%. For the long-term average spectrum analysis intra-genre, song and scale matched better than chance. The highest spectral peak for the WL singers was at the mean fundamental frequency, whereas this spectral area was weaker for the MT singers, who showed a marked peak at 1 kHz. The other main inter-genre difference appeared in the higher frequency region, with a peak in the MT spectrum between 4 and 5 kHz-the region of the "speaker's formant." CONCLUSIONS: In comparing female singers of WL and MT styles, scales as well as song tasks appear to be indicative of singer genre behavior. This implied difference in vocal production may be useful to teachers and clinicians dealing with multiple genres. The addition of a scale-in-genre task may be useful in future research seeking to identify genre-distinctive behaviors.

Using singing to nurture children's hearing? A pilot study.

This article reports a pilot study of the potential benefits of a sustained programme of singing activities on the musical behaviours and hearing acuity of young children with hearing impairment (HI). Twenty-nine children (n=12 HI and n=17 NH) aged between 5 and 7 years from an inner-city primary school in London participated, following appropriate ethical approval. The predominantly classroom-based programme was designed by colleagues from the UCL Institute of Education and UCL Ear Institute in collaboration with a multi-arts charity Creative Futures and delivered by an experienced early years music specialist weekly across two school terms. There was a particular emphasis on building a repertoire of simple songs with actions and allied vocal exploration. Musical learning was also supported by activities that drew on visual imagery for sound and that included simple notation and physical gesture. An overall impact assessment of the pilot programme embraced pre- and post-intervention measures of pitch discrimination, speech perception in noise and singing competency. Subsequent statistical data analyses suggest that the programme had a positive impact on participant children's singing range, particularly (but not only) for HI children with hearing aids, and also in their singing skills. HI children's pitch perception also improved measurably over time. Findings imply that all children, including those with HI, can benefit from regular and sustained access to age-appropriate musical activities.

Singing and social inclusion.

There is a growing body of neurological, cognitive, and social psychological research to suggest the possibility of positive transfer effects from structured musical engagement. In particular, there is evidence to suggest that engagement in musical activities may impact on social inclusion (sense of self and of being socially integrated). Tackling social exclusion and promoting social inclusion are common concerns internationally, such as in the UK and the EC, and there are many diverse Government ministries and agencies globally that see the arts in general and music in particular as a key means by which social needs can be addressed. As part of a wider evaluation of a national, Government-sponsored music education initiative for Primary-aged children in England ("Sing Up"), opportunity was taken by the authors, at the request of the funders, to assess any possible relationship between (a) children's developing singing behavior and development and (b) their social inclusion (sense of self and of being socially integrated). Subsequently, it was possible to match data from n = 6087 participants, drawn from the final 3 years of data collection (2008-2011), in terms of each child's individually assessed singing ability (based on their singing behavior of two well-known songs to create a "normalized singing score") and their written responses to a specially-designed questionnaire that included a set of statements related to children's sense of being socially included to which the children indicated their level of agreement on a seven-point Likert scale. Data analyses suggested that the higher the normalized singing development rating, the more positive the child's self-concept and sense of being socially included, irrespective of singer age, sex and ethnicity.

Perceptual connections between prepubertal children's voices in their speaking behavior and their singing behavior.

Traditionally, children's speaking and singing behaviors have been regarded as two separate sets of behaviors. Nevertheless, according to the voice-scientific view, all vocal functioning is interconnected due to the fact that we exploit the same voice and the same physiological mechanisms in generating all vocalization. The intention of the study was to investigate whether prepubertal children's speaking and singing behaviors are connected perceptually. Voice recordings were conducted with 60 10-year-old children. Each child performed a set of speaking and singing tasks in the voice experiments. Each voice sample was analyzed perceptually with a specially designed perceptual voice assessment protocol. The main finding was that the children's vocal functioning and voice quality in their speaking behavior correlated statistically significantly with those in their singing behavior. The findings imply that children's speaking and singing behaviors are perceptually connected through their vocal functioning and voice quality. Thus, it can be argued that children possess one voice that is used for generating their speaking and singing behaviors.

Should singing activities be included in speech and voice therapy for prepubertal children?

Customarily, speaking and singing have tended to be regarded as two completely separate sets of behaviors in clinical and educational settings. The treatment of speech and voice disorders has focused on the client's speaking ability, as this is perceived to be the main vocal behavior of concern. However, according to a broader voice-science perspective, given that the same vocal structure is used for speaking and singing, it may be possible to include singing in speech and voice therapy. In this article, a theoretical framework is proposed that indicates possible benefits from the inclusion of singing in such therapeutic settings. Based on a literature review, it is demonstrated theoretically why singing activities can potentially be exploited in the treatment of prepubertal children suffering from speech and voice disorders. Based on this theoretical framework, implications for further empirical research and practice are suggested.

Developing identities and attitudes in musicians and classroom music teachers.

BACKGROUND: The Western classical training of many secondary music specialist teachers may be inappropriate for the demands of the contemporary secondary school classroom, leading to a conflict between their self-concepts as 'musicians' and as 'teachers'. AIMS: To undertake a short-term longitudinal comparison of the developing identities and the attitudes of a group of intending specialist secondary music teachers, during the transition into their first teaching post, with a group of music students from university and conservatory backgrounds. SAMPLE: Twenty-nine trainee music teachers completed Phases 1 and 2 of the study during their final weeks of training and during the second term of their teaching career, and a comparison group of 29 final-year undergraduate music students did so in the first and last terms of their final year. METHOD: A specially devised composite Musical Careers Questionnaire gathered information in both phases about self-efficacy in music and in teaching, identification with professional groups in these two domains, and attitudes towards important skills for musicians and teachers. RESULTS: A series of ANOVAs comparing the student groups' scores in each of the two phases revealed no significant main effects or interactions for either of the self-efficacy measures, a significant group effect for professional group identification, and some changes in the attitude measures. CONCLUSION: Although participants' views of their own general effectiveness as teachers and as musicians changed very little over the period of the study, their attitudes towards music teaching and perceptions of the skills required showed some changes.

Are real-time displays of benefit in the singing studio? An exploratory study.

This article reports on an exploratory research project to evaluate the usefulness or otherwise of real-time visual feedback in the singing studio. The primary purpose of the work was not to optimize the technology for this application, but to work alongside teachers and students to study the impact of real-time visual feedback technology use on the students' learning experiences. An action research methodology was used to explore the benefit of real-time displays over an extended period. The experimental phase of the work was guided by a Liaison Panel of teachers and academics in the areas of singing, pedagogy, voice science, speech therapy, and linguistic science. Qualitative data were collected from eight students working with two professional singing teachers. The teachers and students acted as co-researchers under the action research paradigm. Teachers and students alike kept journals of their teaching and learning experiences. Singing lessons were observed regularly by the research team, coded for teacher and student behaviors, and all co-researchers were interviewed at the mid- and endpoint of the project. The use of technology had a positive impact on the learning process, and this is evidenced through case study data.

WinSingad: a real-time display for the singing studio.

This paper describes the nature and implementation of a specially-designed integrated real-time display that is undergoing evaluation as part of a recently funded innovative pilot project to investigate the relative usefulness of computer displays in the singing studio. Following previous work that suggests that simple displays of a small number of analysis parameters are generally likely to be the most effective, the system makes available a range of complementary analyses that are plotted against time. These relate to: fundamental frequency, spectrum, spectral ratio, and vocal tract area. These can be viewed singly, multiply or in combination using a panel based design within the PC Windows environment, known as WinSingad. The algorithms used are described and the displays themselves are illustrated with results gained from the pilot phase of the research to indicate their potential usefulness.