Resurgent rotavirus diarrhoea outbreak five years after introduction of rotavirus vaccine in Botswana, 2018.

INTRODUCTION: Botswana had a resurgent diarrhea outbreak in 2018, mainly affecting children under five years old. Botswana introduced rotavirus vaccine (RotarixTM) into the national immunization programme in July 2012. Official rotavirus vaccine coverage estimates averaged 77.2% over the five years following introduction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The outbreak was investigated using multiple data sources, including stool laboratory testing, immunization data review, water assessment, and vaccine storage assessment. We reviewed official reports of the routine immunization data from 2013 to 2017 and compared district-level rotavirus vaccine coverage with district-level attack rates during the outbreak. RESULTS: During the outbreak, a total of 228 stool samples were tested at the national health laboratory and 152 (67%) of the specimens were positive for rotavirus. A portion of adequate samples (80) were selected for referral to the Regional Reference Lab. The laboratory testing of 80 samples at the Regional Reference Laboratory in South Africa showed that 91% of the stool samples were positive for rotavirus, and the dominant strain 47/80 (58.7%) was G3P[8]. The immunization data showed that rotavirus vaccine coverage varied widely among districts, and there was no correlation between districts with high attack rates and those with low immunization coverage. Water assessment showed that some water sources were contaminated with E Coli. There was no problem with vaccine storage. CONCLUSION: The outbreak was caused by rotavirus G3P[8], a strain that was not common in the country prior to the outbreak. Despite the significant pressure and anxiety that outbreaks cause, the number of diarrhea cases and deaths were less compared to pre-vaccine era due to the impact of vaccination. This highlights the need for continuous implementation of high impact child survival interventions.

Rotavirus genotypes in children under five years hospitalized with diarrhea in low and middle-income countries: Results from the WHO-coordinated Global Rotavirus Surveillance Network.

Rotavirus is the most common pathogen causing pediatric diarrhea and an important cause of morbidity and mortality in low- and middle-income countries. Previous evidence suggests that the introduction of rotavirus vaccines in national immunization schedules resulted in dramatic declines in disease burden but may also be changing the rotavirus genetic landscape and driving the emergence of new genotypes. We report genotype data of more than 16,000 rotavirus isolates from 40 countries participating in the Global Rotavirus Surveillance Network. Data from a convenience sample of children under five years of age hospitalized with acute watery diarrhea who tested positive for rotavirus were included. Country results were weighted by their estimated rotavirus disease burden to estimate regional genotype distributions. Globally, the most frequent genotypes identified after weighting were G1P[8] (31%), G1P[6] (8%) and G3P[8] (8%). Genotypes varied across WHO Regions and between countries that had and had not introduced rotavirus vaccine. G1P[8] was less frequent among African (36 vs 20%) and European (33 vs 8%) countries that had introduced rotavirus vaccines as compared to countries that had not introduced. Our results describe differences in the distribution of the most common rotavirus genotypes in children with diarrhea in low- and middle-income countries. G1P[8] was less frequent in countries that had introduced the rotavirus vaccine while different strains are emerging or re-emerging in different regions.

Evaluation of Laboratories Supporting Invasive Bacterial Vaccine-Preventable Disease (IB-VPD) Surveillance in the World Health Organization African Region, through the Performance of Coordinated External Quality Assessment.

(1) Background: Laboratories supporting the invasive bacteria preventable disease (IB-VPD) network are expected to demonstrate the capacity to identify the main etiological agents of pediatric bacterial meningitis (PBM) (Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae) on Gram stains and in phenotypic identification. Individual reports of sentinel site (SSL), national (NL) and regional reference (RRL) laboratories participating in the World Health Organization (WHO)-coordinated external quality assessment, distributed by the United Kingdom National External Quality Assessment (EQA) Services (UK NEQAS) for Microbiology between 2014 and 2019 were analyzed. (2) Methods: The panels consisted of (1) unstained bacterial smears for Gram staining, (2) viable isolates for identification and serotyping/serogrouping (ST/SG) and (3) simulated cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) samples for species detection and ST/SG using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). SSLs and NLs tested for Gram staining and species identification (partial panel). RRLs, plus any SSLs and NLs (optionally) also analyzed the simulated CSF samples (full panel). The passing score was ≥75% for NLs and SSLs, and ≥90% for RRLs and NLs/SSLs testing the full panel. (3) Results: Overall, 63% (5/8) of the SSLs and NLs were able to correctly identify the targeted pathogens, in 2019; but there were challenges to identify Haemophilus influenzae either on Gram stains (35% of the labs failed 2014), or in culture. Individual performance showed inconsistent capacity, with only 39% (13/33) of the SSLs/NLs passing the EQA exercise throughout all surveys in which they participated. RRLs performed well over the study period, but one of the two failed to reach the minimal passing score in 2016 and 2018; while the SSLs/NLs that optionally tested the full panel scored between 75% and 90% (intermediate pass category). (4) Conclusions: We identified a need for implementing a robust quality management system for timely identification of the gaps and then implementing corrective and preventive actions, in addition to continuous refresher training in the SSLs and NLs supporting the IB-VPD surveillance in the World Health Organization, Regional Office for Africa (WHO AFRO).

Genomic characterization of the rotavirus G3P[8] strain in vaccinated children, reveals possible reassortment events between human and animal strains in Manhiça District, Mozambique.

Mozambique introduced the rotavirus vaccine (Rotarix®; GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals, Rixensart, Belgium) in 2015, and since then, the Centro de Investigação em Saúde de Manhiça has been monitoring its impact on rotavirus-associated diarrhea and the trend of circulating strains, where G3P[8] was reported as the predominant strain after the vaccine introduction. Genotype G3 is among the most commonly detected Rotavirus strains in humans and animals, and herein, we report on the whole genome constellation of G3P[8] detected in two children (aged 18 months old) hospitalized with moderate-to-severe diarrhea at the Manhiça District Hospital. The two strains had a typical Wa-like genome constellation (I1-R1-C1-M1-A1-N1-T1-E1-H1) and shared 100% nucleotide (nt) and amino acid (aa) identities in 10 gene segments, except for VP6. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that genome segments encoding VP7, VP6, VP1, NSP3, and NSP4 of the two strains clustered most closely with porcine, bovine, and equine strains with identities ranging from 86.9-99.9% nt and 97.2-100% aa. Moreover, they consistently formed distinct clusters with some G1P[8], G3P[8], G9P[8], G12P[6], and G12P[8] strains circulating from 2012 to 2019 in Africa (Mozambique, Kenya, Rwanda, and Malawi) and Asia (Japan, China, and India) in genome segments encoding six proteins (VP2, VP3, NSP1-NSP2, NSP5/6). The identification of segments exhibiting the closest relationships with animal strains shows significant diversity of rotavirus and suggests the possible occurrence of reassortment events between human and animal strains. This demonstrates the importance of applying next-generation sequencing to monitor and understand the evolutionary changes of strains and evaluate the impact of vaccines on strain diversity.

Risk Factors for Mortality Among Children Younger Than Age 5 Years With Severe Diarrhea in Low- and Middle-income Countries: Findings From the World Health Organization-coordinated Global Rotavirus and Pediatric Diarrhea Surveillance Networks.

BACKGROUND: Diarrhea is the second leading cause of death in children younger than 5 years of age globally. The burden of diarrheal mortality is concentrated in low-resource settings. Little is known about the risk factors for childhood death from diarrheal disease in low- and middle-income countries. METHODS: Data from the World Health Organization (WHO)-coordinated Global Rotavirus and Pediatric Diarrhea Surveillance Networks, which are composed of active, sentinel, hospital-based surveillance sites, were analyzed to assess mortality in children <5 years of age who were hospitalized with diarrhea between 2008 and 2018. Case fatality risks were calculated, and multivariable logistic regression was performed to identify risk factors for mortality. RESULTS: This analysis comprises 234 781 cases, including 1219 deaths, across 57 countries. The overall case fatality risk was found to be 0.5%. Risk factors for death in the multivariable analysis included younger age (for <6 months compared with older ages, odds ratio [OR] = 3.54; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.81-4.50), female sex (OR = 1.18; 95% CI, 1.06-1.81), presenting with persistent diarrhea (OR = 1.91; 95% CI, 1.01-3.25), no vomiting (OR = 1.13; 95% CI, .98-1.30), severe dehydration (OR = 3.79; 95% CI, 3.01-4.83), and being negative for rotavirus on an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test (OR = 2.29; 95% CI, 1.92-2.74). Cases from the African Region had the highest odds of death compared with other WHO regions (OR = 130.62 comparing the African Region with the European Region; 95% CI, 55.72-422.73), whereas cases from the European Region had the lowest odds of death. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support known risk factors for childhood diarrheal mortality and highlight the need for interventions to address dehydration and rotavirus-negative diarrheal infections.

Progress with COVID-19 vaccination in the WHO African Region in 2021.

Introduction: as of end 2021, ten different vaccines have received Emergency use listing by the World Health Organisation. The vaccination response to the COVID pandemic started in February 2021 in the WHO African Region. WHO proposed a national coverage target of fully vaccinated population of 40% by the end of December 2021. This manuscript attempts to review the progress in the roll-out of COVID-19 vaccination in the African Region. Methods: we analysed the aggregate COVID-19 vaccine uptake and utilization data from the immunisation monitoring databases set up by countries and shared with the WHO Regional Office for Africa. Results: as of 31 December 2021, a total of 340,663,156 doses of COVID-19 vaccine were received in 46 countries in the African Region. The weekly average doses administered was 4,069,934 throughout the year. In the same period, a total of 114,498,980 persons received at least one dose, and 71,862,108 people were fully vaccinated, amounting to 6.6% of the total population in the Region. Only 5 countries attained the target of 40% full vaccination coverage. Disaggregated information was not available from all countries on the number of persons vaccinated by gender, and according to the priority population groupings. A total of 102,046 cases of adverse events following immunisation (AEFIs) were reported among which 6,260 (6.1%) were labelled as severe AEFIs. Conclusion: COVID-19 vaccination coverage remains very low in the African Region, with all but 5 countries missing the 40% coverage target as of December 2021. Countries, donors and partners should mobilise political will and resources towards the attainment of the coverage targets. Countries will need to implement vaccination efforts using tailored approaches to reach unreached populations. The reporting gaps indicate the need to invest on efforts to improve the capture, analysis and use of more granular program data.

Effectiveness of Monovalent Rotavirus Vaccine in Mozambique, a Country with a High Burden of Chronic Malnutrition.

Mozambique introduced monovalent rotavirus vaccine (Rotarix®) in September 2015. We evaluated the effectiveness of Rotarix® under conditions of routine use in Mozambican children hospitalized with acute gastroenteritis (AGE). A test negative case-control analysis was performed on data collected during 2017−2019 from children <5 years old, admitted with AGE in seven sentinel hospital sites in Mozambique. Adjusted VE was calculated for ≥1 dose of vaccine vs. zero doses using unconditional logistic regression, where VE = (1 − aOR) × 100%. VE estimates were stratified by age group, AGE severity, malnutrition, and genotype. Among 689 children eligible for analysis, 23.7% were rotavirus positive (cases) and 76.3% were negative (controls). The adjusted VE of ≥1 dose in children aged 6−11 months was 52.0% (95% CI, −11, 79), and −24.0% (95% CI, −459, 62) among children aged 12−23 months. Estimated VE was lower in stunted than non-stunted children (14% (95% CI, −138, 66) vs. 59% (95% CI, −125, 91)). Rotavirus vaccination appeared moderately effective against rotavirus gastroenteritis hospitalization in young Mozambican children. VE point estimates were lower in older and stunted children, although confidence intervals were wide and overlapped across strata. These findings provide additional evidence for other high-mortality countries considering rotavirus vaccine introduction.

Aetiology and incidence of diarrhoea requiring hospitalisation in children under 5 years of age in 28 low-income and middle-income countries: findings from the Global Pediatric Diarrhea Surveillance network.

INTRODUCTION: Diarrhoea remains a leading cause of child morbidity and mortality. Systematically collected and analysed data on the aetiology of hospitalised diarrhoea in low-income and middle-income countries are needed to prioritise interventions. METHODS: We established the Global Pediatric Diarrhea Surveillance network, in which children under 5 years hospitalised with diarrhoea were enrolled at 33 sentinel surveillance hospitals in 28 low-income and middle-income countries. Randomly selected stool specimens were tested by quantitative PCR for 16 causes of diarrhoea. We estimated pathogen-specific attributable burdens of diarrhoeal hospitalisations and deaths. We incorporated country-level incidence to estimate the number of pathogen-specific deaths on a global scale. RESULTS: During 2017-2018, 29 502 diarrhoea hospitalisations were enrolled, of which 5465 were randomly selected and tested. Rotavirus was the leading cause of diarrhoea requiring hospitalisation (attributable fraction (AF) 33.3%; 95% CI 27.7 to 40.3), followed by Shigella (9.7%; 95% CI 7.7 to 11.6), norovirus (6.5%; 95% CI 5.4 to 7.6) and adenovirus 40/41 (5.5%; 95% CI 4.4 to 6.7). Rotavirus was the leading cause of hospitalised diarrhoea in all regions except the Americas, where the leading aetiologies were Shigella (19.2%; 95% CI 11.4 to 28.1) and norovirus (22.2%; 95% CI 17.5 to 27.9) in Central and South America, respectively. The proportion of hospitalisations attributable to rotavirus was approximately 50% lower in sites that had introduced rotavirus vaccine (AF 20.8%; 95% CI 18.0 to 24.1) compared with sites that had not (42.1%; 95% CI 33.2 to 53.4). Globally, we estimated 208 009 annual rotavirus-attributable deaths (95% CI 169 561 to 259 216), 62 853 Shigella-attributable deaths (95% CI 48 656 to 78 805), 36 922 adenovirus 40/41-attributable deaths (95% CI 28 469 to 46 672) and 35 914 norovirus-attributable deaths (95% CI 27 258 to 46 516). CONCLUSIONS: Despite the substantial impact of rotavirus vaccine introduction, rotavirus remained the leading cause of paediatric diarrhoea hospitalisations. Improving the efficacy and coverage of rotavirus vaccination and prioritising interventions against Shigella, norovirus and adenovirus could further reduce diarrhoea morbidity and mortality.

Epidemiology of intussusception among infants in Ethiopia, 2013-2016.

INTRODUCTION: intussusception is a condition in which one segment of the bowel prolapses into another causing obstruction. Information on the epidemiology of intussusception in sub-Saharan Africa is limited. We describe the sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of children with intussusception in Ethiopia. METHODS: active surveillance for children < 12 months of age with intussusception was conducted at six sentinel hospitals in Ethiopia. Limited socio-economic and clinical data were collected from enrolled children. Characteristics among children who died and children who survived were compared using the Wilcoxon rank sum test for continuous variables and Chi-square tests for categorical variables. RESULTS: total of 164 children < 12 months of age with intussusception were enrolled; 62% were male. The median age at symptom onset was 6 months with only 12 (7%) of cases occurring in the first 3 months of life. Intussusception was reduced by surgery in 90% of cases and 10% were reduced by enema; 13% of cases died. Compared to survivors, children who died had a significantly longer time to presentation to the first health care facility and to the treating health care facility (median 3 days versus 2 days, p = 0.02, respectively). CONCLUSION: the high mortality rate, late presentation of intussusception cases, and lack of modalities for non-surgical management at some facilities highlight the need for better management of intussusception cases in Ethiopia.

Delays in presentation of intussusception and development of gangrene in Zimbabwe.

INTRODUCTION: prompt diagnosis and treatment are considered key to successful management of intussusception. We examined pre-treatment delay among intussusception cases in Zimbabwe and conducted an exploratory analysis of factors associated with intraoperative finding of gangrene. METHODS: data were prospectively collected as part of the African Intussusception Network using a questionnaire administered on consecutive patients with intussusception managed at Harare Children´s Hospital. Delays were classified using the Three-Delays-Model: care-seeking delay (time from onset of symptoms to first presentation for health care), health-system delay (referral time from presentation to first facility to treatment facility) and treatment delay (time from presentation at treatment facility to treatment). RESULTS: ninety-two patients were enrolled from August 2014 to December 2016. The mean care-seeking interval was 1.9 days, the mean health-system interval was 1.5 days, and the mean treatment interval was 1.1 days. Mean total time from symptom onset to treatment was 4.4 days. Being transferred from another institution added 1.4 days to the patient journey. Gangrene was found in 2 (25%) of children who received treatment within 1 day, 13 (41%) of children who received treatment 2-3 days, and 26 (50%) of children who received treatment more than 3 days after symptom onset (p = 0.34). CONCLUSION: significant care-seeking and health-system delays are encountered by intussusception patients in Zimbabwe. Our findings highlight the need to explore approaches to improve the early diagnosis of intussusception and prompt referral of patients for treatment.

The Burden of Invasive Bacterial Disease and the Impact of 10-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine in Children <5 years hospitalized for Meningitis in Lusaka, Zambia, 2010-2019.

BACKGROUND: Despite the availability of vaccines, invasive bacterial diseases remain a public health concern and cause childhood morbidity and mortality. We investigated the characteristics of etiological agents causing bacterial meningitis in children <5 years in the years pre- (2010-2012) and post- (2014-2019) 10-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV10) introduction in Zambia. METHODS: Streptococcus pneumoniae (Spn), Haemophilus influenzae (Hi), and Neisseria meningitidis (Nm) from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were identified by microbiological culture and/or real-time polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: During the surveillance period, a total of 3811 children were admitted with suspected meningitis, 16% (598 of 3811) of which were probable cases. Bacterial meningitis was confirmed in 37% (221 of 598) of the probable cases. Spn pneumoniae, Hi, and Nm accounted for 67% (148 of 221), 14% (31 of 221), and 19% (42 of 221) of confirmed cases, respectively. Thirty-six percent of pneumococcal meningitis was caused by 10-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV10) serotypes, 16% 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine and 39% by nonvaccine serotype (NVS). There was an association between the introduction of PCV10 vaccination and a decrease in both Spn meningitis and the proportion of PVC10 serotypes in the postvaccination period. Antimicrobial susceptibility of 47 Spn isolates revealed 34% (16 of 47) penicillin resistance. The 31 serotyped Hi accounted for 74% type b (Hib) and 10% type a (Hia). All 42 serogrouped Nm belonged to serogroup W. CONCLUSIONS: There was a decline in pneumococcal meningitis and proportion of PCV10 serotypes in the postvaccination period. However, the serotype replacement with non-PCV10 serotypes and penicillin resistance warrant continued surveillance to inform policy.

The Global Landscape of Pediatric Bacterial Meningitis Data Reported to the World Health Organization-Coordinated Invasive Bacterial Vaccine-Preventable Disease Surveillance Network, 2014-2019.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization (WHO) coordinates the Global Invasive Bacterial Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (IB-VPD) Surveillance Network to support vaccine introduction decisions and use. The network was established to strengthen surveillance and laboratory confirmation of meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Neisseria meningitidis. METHODS: Sentinel hospitals report cases of children <5 years of age hospitalized for suspected meningitis. Laboratories report confirmatory testing results and strain characterization tested by polymerase chain reaction. In 2019, the network included 123 laboratories that follow validated, standardized testing and reporting strategies. RESULTS: From 2014 through 2019, >137 000 suspected meningitis cases were reported by 58 participating countries, with 44.6% (n = 61 386) reported from countries in the WHO African Region. More than half (56.6%, n = 77 873) were among children <1 year of age, and 4.0% (n = 4010) died among those with reported disease outcome. Among suspected meningitis cases, 8.6% (n = 11 798) were classified as probable bacterial meningitis. One of 3 bacterial pathogens was identified in 30.3% (n = 3576) of these cases, namely S. pneumoniae (n = 2177 [60.9%]), H. influenzae (n = 633 [17.7%]), and N. meningitidis (n = 766 [21.4%]). Among confirmed bacterial meningitis cases with outcome reported, 11.0% died; case fatality ratio varied by pathogen (S. pneumoniae, 12.2%; H. influenzae, 6.1%; N. meningitidis, 11.0%). Among the 277 children who died with confirmed bacterial meningitis, 189 (68.2%) had confirmed S. pneumoniae. The proportion of pneumococcal cases with pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) serotypes decreased as the number of countries implementing PCV increased, from 77.8% (n = 273) to 47.5% (n = 248). Of 397 H. influenzae specimens serotyped, 49.1% (n = 195) were type b. Predominant N. meningitidis serogroups varied by region. CONCLUSIONS: This multitier, global surveillance network has supported countries in detecting and serotyping the 3 principal invasive bacterial pathogens that cause pediatric meningitis. Streptococcus pneumoniae was the most common bacterial pathogen detected globally despite the growing number of countries that have nationally introduced PCV. The large proportions of deaths due to S. pneumoniae reflect the high proportion of meningitis cases caused by this pathogen. This global network demonstrated a strong correlation between PCV introduction status and reduction in the proportion of pneumococcal meningitis infections caused by vaccine serotypes. Maintaining case-based, active surveillance with laboratory confirmation for prioritized vaccine-preventable diseases remains a critical component of the global agenda in public health.The World Health Organization (WHO)-coordinated Invasive Bacterial Vaccine-Preventable Disease (IB-VPD) Surveillance Network reported data from 2014 to 2019, contributing to the estimates of the disease burden and serotypes of pediatric meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Neisseria meningitidis.

The Role of Molecular Testing in Pediatric Meningitis Surveillance in Southern and East African Countries, 2008-2017.

BACKGROUND: As part of the global Invasive Bacterial Vaccine-Preventable Diseases Surveillance Network, 12 African countries referred cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples to South Africa's regional reference laboratory. We evaluated the utility of real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in detecting and serotyping/grouping Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Streptococcus pneumoniae (HNS). METHODS: From 2008 to 2017, CSF samples collected from children <5 years old with suspected meningitis underwent routine microbiology testing in-country, and 11 680 samples were submitted for HNS PCR at the regional reference laboratory. Unconditional logistic regression, with adjustment for geographic location, was performed to identify factors associated with PCR positivity. RESULTS: The overall HNS PCR positivity rate for all countries was 10% (1195 of 11 626 samples). In samples with both PCR and culture results, HNS PCR positivity was 11% (744 of 6747 samples), and HNS culture positivity was 3% (207 of 6747). Molecular serotype/serogroup was assigned in 75% of PCR-positive specimens (762 of 1016). Compared with PCR-negative CSF samples, PCR-positive samples were more often turbid (adjusted odds ratio, 6.80; 95% confidence interval, 5.67-8.17) and xanthochromic (1.72; 1.29-2.28), had elevated white blood cell counts (6.13; 4.71-7.99) and high protein concentrations (5.80; 4.34-7.75), and were more often HNS culture positive (32.70; 23.18-46.12). CONCLUSION: PCR increased detection of vaccine-preventable bacterial meningitis in countries where confirmation of suspected meningitis cases is impeded by limited culture capacity.

Decline in Vaccine-Type Streptococcus pneumoniae Serotypes Following Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Introduction in Madagascar.

BACKGROUND: The 10-valent conjugate vaccine (PCV10) was introduced into the Extended Program on Immunization in Madagascar. We assessed the impact of PCV10 on the targeted pneumococcal serotypes among children < 5 years of age at Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Mère Enfant Tsaralalàna. METHOD: Between 2012 and December 2018, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were collected and tested for S. pneumoniae by culture, and antigen tests. The Sentinel Site Laboratory (SSL) referred available CSF samples to the Regional Reference Laboratory (RRL) for real-time polymerase chain reaction confirmatory testing and serotyping. RESULTS: In total, 3616 CSF specimens were collected. The SSL referred 2716 to the RRL; 125 were positive for S. pneumoniae. At the RRL, 115 samples that tested positive for S. pneumoniae were serotyped; PCV10 serotypes accounted for 20%. Compared to the pre-PCV period, the proportion of S. pneumoniae detected declined from 22% to 6.6%, (P < .05), the proportion of PCV10 serotypes as the cause of pneumococcal meningitis cases declined by 26% following vaccine introduction. CONCLUSIONS: In our findings, PCV10 introduction resulted in a decline of meningitis caused by S. pneumoniae and PCV10 vaccine serotypes.

Impact of Rotavirus Vaccine Introduction on Rotavirus Hospitalizations Among Children Under 5 Years of Age-World Health Organization African Region, 2008-2018.

BACKGROUND: Rotavirus is the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) among children worldwide. Prior to rotavirus vaccine introduction, over one third of AGE hospitalizations in Africa were due to rotavirus. We describe the impact of rotavirus vaccines using data from the African Rotavirus Surveillance Network (ARSN). METHODS: For descriptive analysis, we included all sites reporting to ARSN for any length of time between 2008 and 2018. For vaccine impact analysis, continuous surveillance throughout the year was required to minimize potential bias due to enrollment of partial seasons and sites had to report a minimum of 100 AGE cases per year. We report the proportion of rotavirus AGE cases by year relative to vaccine introduction, and the relative reduction in the proportion of rotavirus AGE cases reported following vaccine introduction. RESULTS: From 2008 to 2018, 97 366 prospectively enrolled hospitalized children <5 years of age met the case definition for AGE, and 34.1% tested positive for rotavirus. Among countries that had introduced rotavirus vaccine, the proportion of hospitalized AGE cases positive for rotavirus declined from 39.2% in the prevaccine period to 25.3% in the postvaccine period, a 35.5% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 33.7-37.3) decline. No declines were observed among countries that had not introduced the vaccine over the 11-year period. CONCLUSIONS: Rotavirus vaccine introduction led to large and consistent declines in the proportion of hospitalized AGE cases that are positive for rotavirus. To maximize the public health benefit of these vaccines, efforts to introduce rotavirus vaccines in the remaining countries in the region and to improve coverage should continue.

Implementation of the World Health Organization recommendation on the use of rotavirus vaccine without age restriction by African countries.

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommended the worldwide use of rotavirus vaccines initially in 2007 and 2009 applying a strict age restriction criterion due to the potential for age-related association with increased risk of intussusception in infants. The restriction was relaxed in the 2013 after detailed review of robust safety data generated in post-marketing surveillance studies. We assessed the status of the implementation of the 2013 recommendation to remove age restriction in the WHO African region (AFR). Of the approximately 75% (35/47) of countries that had introduced the vaccine by 2018, only 43% (15/35) removed age restriction, exclusively from South and East sub-region (78%, 14/18). Avoiding confusion at the health facilities and financial constraints particularly resources required for re-training the health workers, use of vaccine off-label were cited as the main reasons for not implementing the 2013 WHO recommendation on age restriction removal. The 2013 WHO recommendation has not been fully implemented by African countries, suggesting the need for technical advisory bodies to further guide the countries, continue monitoring the implementation status and impact on the rotavirus vaccine coverage and intussusception in the Africa region.

Diarrhea hospitalization costs among children <5 years old in Madagascar.

BACKGROUND: Following a recommendation by the World Health Organization, Madagascar introduced rotavirus vaccine in 2014. Though national rotavirus vaccine coverage has remained <80%, rotavirus hospitalizations declined by 78%. Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, has provided financial support for rotavirus vaccine, however the Malagasy government has increasing responsibility for the financial cost. METHODS: In this evaluation, we describe the direct medical, direct non-medical, and indirect cost of illness due to diarrhea among children <5 years old at a public pediatric referral hospital. A 3-part structured questionnaire was administered during and following the hospitalization and the child's hospital record was reviewed. RESULTS: In total, 96 children were included in this analysis. The median total cost of the illness was $156.00 (IQR: 104.00, 210.86) and the median direct medical cost was $107.22. Service delivery costs represented a median of 44% of the inpatient costs; medications and diagnostic tests represented a median of 28% and 20% of the total costs of the hospitalization, respectively. The median percentage of the total illness costs paid by the household was 67%. Among households with income of <$61/month, the median costs of the illness paid by the household were $78.55, representing a median of 168% of the household's monthly expenses. Among households earning >$303/month, the median costs paid by the household were $147.30, representing a median of 53% of the household's monthly expenses. Among all household income levels, caregivers commonly paid these bills from savings, borrowed money, and donations. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings will be useful in assessing the cost-effectiveness of rotavirus vaccine by decisionmakers. These results may also help hospital administrators and healthcare providers better understand the financial constraints of families.

Cost estimates of diarrhea hospitalizations among children <5 years old in Zimbabwe.

INTRODUCTION: Diarrhoea is a leading killer of children <5 years old, accounting for 480,000 deaths in 2017. Zimbabwe introduced Rotarix into its vaccination program in 2014. In this evaluation, we estimate direct medical, direct non-medical, and indirect costs attributable to a diarrhea hospitalization in Zimbabwe after rotavirus vaccine introduction. METHODS: Children <5 years old admitted to Harare Central Hospital from June 2018 to April 2019 with acute watery diarrhea were eligible for this evaluation. A 3-part structured questionnaire was used to collect data by interview from the child's family and by review of the medical record. A stool specimen was also collected and tested for rotavirus. Direct medical costs were the sum of medications, consumables, diagnostic tests, and service delivery costs. Direct non-medical costs were the sum of transportation, meals and lodging for caregivers. Indirect costs are the lost income for household members. RESULTS: A total of 202 children were enrolled with a median age of 12 months (IQR: 7-21) and 48 (24%) had malnutrition. Children were sick for a median of 2 days and most had received outpatient medical care prior to admission. The median monthly household income was higher for well-nourished children compared to malnourished children (p < 0.001). The median total cost of a diarrhea illness resulting in hospitalization was $293.74 (IQR: 188.42, 427.89). Direct medical costs, with a median of $251.74 (IQR: 155.42, 390.96), comprised the majority of the total cost. Among children who tested positive for rotavirus, the median total illness cost was $243.78 (IQR: 160.92, 323.84). The median direct medical costs were higher for malnourished than well-nourished children (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Direct medical costs are the primary determinant of diarrhea illness costs in Zimbabwe. The descriptive findings from this evaluation are an important first step in calculating the cost effectiveness of rotavirus vaccine.

The distribution and use of feedback bulletins among national immunization program management teams in East and Southern Africa.

INTRODUCTION: Immunization program monitoring includes numerous activities, some of which include monitoring of vaccination coverage, surveillance performance and epidemiological patterns. The provision of timely, high quality and actionable feedback is an essential component of strengthening health systems. Within the African region of the WHO, various bulletins are produced and disseminated regularly to provide feedback on the performance of immunization programs and vaccine preventable disease control initiatives. METHODS: The 2019 annual national immunization program managers' meeting for countries in the eastern and southern African subregion was held in Asmara from 18 - 20 March 2019. A survey questionnaire was administered to the participants representing the national programs and in-country partners across the 20 countries. RESULTS: On average, the 75 respondents receive 1.8 e-mailed feedback bulletins monthly. Twenty-three (31%) respondents receive 3 or more written feedback bulletins per month, and 72% receive the bulletins regularly. On a scale of 1 - 5 (from lowest to highest), 87% participants rated the relevance of the bulletins they receive at 4 - 5. Only 19% of the respondents responded that the results are discussed within the national immunization program, and 14% stated that action points are generated based on the feedback received. Fifty-nine (79%) respondents want to receive more frequent feedback on routine immunization performance. Among the EPI program managers and the EPI program data managers, the access to these feedback bulletins was quite limited. Even though the primary objective of the bulletins is to initiate discussions and action based on the provided feedback, such discussions do not happen regularly at country level. The programmatic use and advocacy value of the bulletins is not optimal. CONCLUSION: We recommend integrating program feedback, regularly updating the distribution lists, the additional use of instant messaging platforms for distribution, as well as online posting of the bulletins for wider availability.

The impact of a prolonged ebola outbreak on measles elimination activities in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone, 2014-2015.

INTRODUCTION: Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia have attained significant reduction in measles incidence between 2004 and 2013. The Ebola outbreak in 2014-2015 in West Africa caused significant disruption of the health service delivery in the three worst affected countries. The magnitude of the impact on the immunization program has not been well documented. METHODS: We reviewed national routine immunization administrative coverage data as well as measles surveillance performance and measles epidemiology in the years before, during and after the EVD outbreak in Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone. RESULTS: Both Liberia and Guinea experienced a sharp decline of more than 25% in the monthly number of children vaccinated against measles in 2014 and 2015 as compared to the previous years, while there was no reported decline in Sierra Leone. Guinea and Liberia experienced a decline in measles surveillance activity and performance indicators in 2014 and 2015. During this period, there was an increase in measles incidence and a decline in the mean age of measles cases reported in Liberia and Sierra Leone. Guinea started reporting high measles incidence in 2016. All three countries organized measles supplemental immunization activities by June 2015. Liberia achieved 99% administrative coverage, while Guinea and Sierra Leone attained 90.6% and 97.2% coverage respectively. There were no severe adverse events reported during these mass vaccination activities. The disruptive effect of the Ebola outbreak on immunization services was especially evident in Guinea and Liberia. Our review of the reported administrative vaccination coverage at national level does not show significant decline in measles first dose vaccination coverage in Sierra Leone as compared to other reports. This may be due to inaccuracies in coverage monitoring and data quality problems. The increases in measles transmission and incidence in these three countries can be explained by the rapid accumulation of susceptible children. Despite the organization of mass vaccination activities, measles incidence through 2017 has remained higher than the pre-Ebola period in all three countries. CONCLUSION: The Ebola outbreak in West Africa significantly affected measles vaccination coverage rates in two of the three worst affected countries, and led to persistent gaps in coverage, along with high measles incidence that was documented until two years after the end of the Ebola outbreak. Liberia and Sierra Leone have demonstrated coverage improvements after the end of the Ebola outbreak.