Cryogel microcarriers for sustained local delivery of growth factors to the brain.

Neurotrophic growth factors such as glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) have been considered as potential therapeutic candidates for neurodegenerative disorders due to their important role in modulating the growth and survival of neurons. However, clinical translation remains elusive, as their large size hinders translocation across the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and their short half-life in vivo necessitates repeated administrations. Local delivery to the brain offers a potential route to the target site but requires a suitable drug-delivery system capable of releasing these proteins in a controlled and sustained manner. Herein, we develop a cryogel microcarrier delivery system which takes advantage of the heparin-binding properties of GDNF and BDNF, to reversibly bind/release these growth factors via electrostatic interactions. Droplet microfluidics and subzero temperature polymerization was used to create monodisperse cryogels with varying degrees of negative charge and an average diameter of 20 µm. By tailoring the inclusion of 3-sulfopropyl acrylate (SPA) as a negatively charged moiety, the release duration of these two growth factors could be adjusted to range from weeks to half a year. 80% SPA cryogels and 20% SPA cryogels were selected to load GDNF and BDNF respectively, for the subsequent biological studies. Cell culture studies demonstrated that these cryogel microcarriers were cytocompatible with neuronal and microglial cell lines, as well as primary neural cultures. Furthermore, in vivo studies confirmed their biocompatibility after administration into the brain, as well as their ability to deliver, retain and release GDNF and BDNF in the striatum. Overall, this study highlights the potential of using cryogel microcarriers for long-term delivery of neurotrophic growth factors to the brain for neurodegenerative disorder therapeutics.

Precision Culture Scaling to Establish High-Throughput Vasculogenesis Models.

Hydrogel-based 3D cell cultures can recapitulate (patho)physiological phenomena ex vivo. However, due to their complex multifactorial regulation, adapting these tissue and disease models for high-throughput screening workflows remains challenging. In this study, a new precision culture scaling (PCS-X) methodology combines statistical techniques (design of experiment and multiple linear regression) with automated, parallelized experiments and analyses to customize hydrogel-based vasculogenesis cultures using human umbilical vein endothelial cells and retinal microvascular endothelial cells. Variations of cell density, growth factor supplementation, and media composition are systematically explored to induce vasculogenesis in endothelial mono- and cocultures with mesenchymal stromal cells or retinal microvascular pericytes in 384-well plate formats. The developed cultures are shown to respond to vasculogenesis inhibitors in a compound- and dose-dependent manner, demonstrating the scope and power of PCS-X in creating parallelized tissue and disease models for drug discovery and individualized therapies.

Adsorbed polymer conjugates to adaptively inhibit blood coagulation activation by medical membranes.

Adaptive drug release can combat coagulation and inflammation activation at the blood-material interface with minimized side effects. For that purpose, poly(styrene-alt-maleic-anhydride) copolymers were conjugated to heparin via coagulation-responsive linker peptides and shown to tightly adsorb onto poly(ethersulfone) (PES)-surfaces from aqueous solutions as monolayers. Coagulation-responsive release of unfractionated as well as low molecular weight heparins from the respective coatings was demonstrated to be functionally beneficial in human plasma and whole blood incubation with faster release kinetics resulting in stronger anticoagulant effects. Coated poly(ethersulfone)/poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PES/PVP) flat membranes proved the technology to offer an easy, effective and robust anticoagulant interfacial functionalization of hemodialysis membranes. In perspective, the modularity of the adaptive release system will be used for inhibiting multiple activation processes.

Dynamic matrices with DNA-encoded viscoelasticity for cell and organoid culture.

Three-dimensional cell and organoid cultures rely on the mechanical support of viscoelastic matrices. However, commonly used matrix materials lack control over key cell-instructive properties. Here we report on fully synthetic hydrogels based on DNA libraries that self-assemble with ultrahigh-molecular-weight polymers, forming a dynamic DNA-crosslinked matrix (DyNAtrix). DyNAtrix enables computationally predictable and systematic control over its viscoelasticity, thermodynamic and kinetic parameters by changing DNA sequence information. Adjustable heat activation allows homogeneous embedding of mammalian cells. Intriguingly, stress-relaxation times can be tuned over four orders of magnitude, recapitulating mechanical characteristics of living tissues. DyNAtrix is self-healing, printable, exhibits high stability, cyto- and haemocompatibility, and controllable degradation. DyNAtrix-based cultures of human mesenchymal stromal cells, pluripotent stem cells, canine kidney cysts and human trophoblast organoids show high viability, proliferation and morphogenesis. DyNAtrix thus represents a programmable and versatile precision matrix for advanced approaches to biomechanics, biophysics and tissue engineering.

A New In Vitro Blood Flow Model for the Realistic Evaluation of Antimicrobial Surfaces.

Device-associated bloodstream infections can cause serious medical problems and cost-intensive postinfection management, defining a need for more effective antimicrobial coatings. Newly developed coatings often show reduced bacterial colonization and high hemocompatibility in established in vitro tests, but fail in animal studies or clinical trials. The poor predictive power of these models is attributed to inadequate representation of in vivo conditions. Herein, a new single-pass blood flow model, with simultaneous incubation of the test surface with bacteria and freshly-drawn human blood, is presented. The flow model is validated by comparative analysis of a recently developed set of antiadhesive and contact-killing polymer coatings, and the corresponding uncoated polycarbonate surfaces. The results confirm the model's ability to differentiate the antimicrobial activities of the studied surfaces. Blood activation data correlate with bacterial surface coverage: low bacterial adhesion is associated with low inflammation and hemostasis. Shear stress correlates inversely with bacterial colonization, especially on antiadhesive surfaces. The introduced model is concluded to enable the evaluation of novel antimicrobial materials under in vivo-like conditions, capturing interactions between bacteria and biomaterials surfaces in the presence of key components of the ex vivo host response.

Nerve growth factor receptor (Ngfr) induces neurogenic plasticity by suppressing reactive astroglial Lcn2/Slc22a17 signaling in Alzheimer's disease.

Neurogenesis, crucial for brain resilience, is reduced in Alzheimer's disease (AD) that induces astroglial reactivity at the expense of the pro-neurogenic potential, and restoring neurogenesis could counteract neurodegenerative pathology. However, the molecular mechanisms promoting pro-neurogenic astroglial fate despite AD pathology are unknown. In this study, we used APP/PS1dE9 mouse model and induced Nerve growth factor receptor (Ngfr) expression in the hippocampus. Ngfr, which promotes neurogenic fate of astroglia during the amyloid pathology-induced neuroregeneration in zebrafish brain, stimulated proliferative and neurogenic outcomes. Histological analyses of the changes in proliferation and neurogenesis, single-cell transcriptomics, spatial proteomics, and functional knockdown studies showed that the induced expression of Ngfr reduced the reactive astrocyte marker Lipocalin-2 (Lcn2), which we found was sufficient to reduce neurogenesis in astroglia. Anti-neurogenic effects of Lcn2 was mediated by Slc22a17, blockage of which recapitulated the pro-neurogenicity by Ngfr. Long-term Ngfr expression reduced amyloid plaques and Tau phosphorylation. Postmortem human AD hippocampi and 3D human astroglial cultures showed elevated LCN2 levels correlate with reactive gliosis and reduced neurogenesis. Comparing transcriptional changes in mouse, zebrafish, and human AD brains for cell intrinsic differential gene expression and weighted gene co-expression networks revealed common altered downstream effectors of NGFR signaling, such as PFKP, which can enhance proliferation and neurogenesis in vitro when blocked. Our study suggests that the reactive non-neurogenic astroglia in AD can be coaxed to a pro-neurogenic fate and AD pathology can be alleviated with Ngfr. We suggest that enhancing pro-neurogenic astroglial fate may have therapeutic ramifications in AD.

Advanced in vitro hemocompatibility assessment of biomaterials using a new flow incubation system.

Physiologically relevant in vitro hemocompatibility assessment of biomaterials remains challenging. We present a new setup that enables standardized whole blood incubation of biomedical materials under flow. A blood volume of 2 mL is recirculated over test surfaces in a custom-made parallel plate incubation system to determine the activation of hemostasis and inflammation. Controlled physiological shear rates between 125 s-1 and 1250 s-1 and minimized contact to air are combined with a natural-like pumping process. A unique feature of this setup allows tracing adhesion of blood cells to test surfaces microscopically in situ. Validation testing was performed in comparison to previously applied whole blood incubation methodologies. Experiments with the newly developed setup showed that even small obstacles to blood flow activate blood (independent of materials-induced blood activation levels); that adhesion of blood cells to biomaterials equilibrates within 5 to 10 min; that high shear rates (1250 compared to 375 s-1) induce platelet activation; and that hemolysis, platelet factor 4 (PF4) release and platelet loss - but not thrombin formation - depend on shear rate (within the range investigated, 125 to 1250 s-1).

Entropic repulsion of cholesterol-containing layers counteracts bioadhesion.

Control of adhesion is a striking feature of living matter that is of particular interest regarding technological translation1-3. We discovered that entropic repulsion caused by interfacial orientational fluctuations of cholesterol layers restricts protein adsorption and bacterial adhesion. Moreover, we found that intrinsically adhesive wax ester layers become similarly antibioadhesive when containing small quantities (under 10 wt%) of cholesterol. Wetting, adsorption and adhesion experiments, as well as atomistic simulations, showed that repulsive characteristics depend on the specific molecular structure of cholesterol that encodes a finely balanced fluctuating reorientation at the interface of unconstrained supramolecular assemblies: layers of cholesterol analogues differing only in minute molecular variations showed markedly different interfacial mobility and no antiadhesive effects. Also, orientationally fixed cholesterol layers did not resist bioadhesion. Our insights provide a conceptually new physicochemical perspective on biointerfaces and may guide future material design in regulation of adhesion.

Hemocompatibility of cellulose phosphate aerogel membranes with potential use in bone tissue engineering.

Cellulose is an appealing material for tissue engineering. In an attempt to overcome some obstacles with cellulose II cell scaffolding materials related to insufficient biomineralization, lack of micron-size porosity, and deficiency in surface charge, respective solutions have been proposed. These included covalent phosphorylation of different cellulose materials targeting relatively low degrees of substitution (DS 0.18-0.23) and processing these cellulose derivatives into scaffolding materials by a dissolution/coagulation approach employing the hitherto rarely used TBAF/DMSO/H2O system for cellulose dissolution. Here, we report bioactivity and preliminary hemocompatibility testing of dual-porous cellulose phosphate aerogels (contrasted with the phosphate-free reference) obtained via coagulation (water/ethanol), solvent exchange and scCO2 drying. Deposition of hydroxyapatite from simulated body fluid (7 days of immersion) revealed good bioactivity (1.5-2.2 mg Ca2+ per mg scaffold). Incubation of the scCO2-dried and rehydrated scaffolding materials in heparin anticoagulated human whole blood was conducted to study selected parameters of hemostasis (prothrombin F1+2 fragment, PF4, count of thrombocyte-leukocyte conjugates) and inflammatory response (C5a fragment, leukocyte activation marker CD11b). Adhesion of leukocytes on the surface of the incubated substrates was assessed by scanning electron and fluorescence microscopy (DAPI staining). The results suggest that phosphorylation at low DS does not increase platelet activation. However, a significant increase in platelet activation and thrombin formation was observed after a certain fraction of the negative surface charges had been compensated by Ca2+ ions. The combination of both phosphorylation and calcification turned out to be a potent means for controlling the inflammatory response, which was close to baseline level for some of the studied samples.

Analysis of the Binding of Cytokines to Highly Charged Polymer Networks.

A model describing the binding of biological signaling proteins to highly charged polymer networks is presented. The networks are formed by polyelectrolyte chains for which the distance between two charges at the chain is smaller than the Bjerrum length. Counterion condensation on such highly charged chains immobilizes a part of the counterions. The Donnan-equilibrium between the polymer network and the aqueous solution with salt concentration c s b $c_s^b$ is used to calculate the salt concentration of the co- and counterions c s g $c_s^g$ entering the network. Two factors are decisive: i) The electrostatic interaction between the network and the protein is given by the Donnan-potential of the network and the net charge of the protein. In addition to this leading term, a second term describes the change in the Born-energy of the proteins when entering the network. ii) The interaction of the protein with the highly charged chains within the network is governed by counterion release: Patches of positive charge at the protein become multivalent counterions of the polyelectrolyte chains thus releasing a concomitant number of condensed counterions. The model compares favorably to experimental data obtained on a set of biohybrid polymer networks composed of crosslinked glycosaminoglycan chains that interact with a mixture of key signaling proteins.

Discriminant Principal Component Analysis of ToF-SIMS Spectra for Deciphering Compositional Differences of MSC-Secreted Extracellular Matrices.

Identifying characteristic extracellular matrix (ECM) variants is a key challenge in mechanistic biology, bioengineering, and medical diagnostics. The reported study demonstrates the potential of time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) to detect subtle differences between human mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC)-secreted ECM types as induced by exogenous stimulation or emerging pathology. ToF-SIMS spectra of decellularized ECM samples are evaluated by discriminant principal component analysis (DPCA), an advanced multivariate analysis technique, to decipher characteristic compositional features. To establish the approach, signatures of major ECM proteins are determined from samples of pre-defined mixtures. Based on that, sets of ECM variants produced by MSCs in vitro are analyzed. Differences in the content of collagen, fibronectin, and laminin in the ECM resulting from the combined supplementation of MSC cultures with polymers that induce macromolecular crowding and with ascorbic acid are detected from the DPCA of ToF-SIMS spectra. The results are verified by immunostaining. Finally, the comparative ToF-SIMS analysis of ECM produced by MSCs of healthy donors and patients suffering from myelodysplastic syndrome display the potential of the novel methodology to reveal disease-associated alterations of the ECM composition.

Precision Hydrogels for the Study of Cancer Cell Mechanobiology.

Cancer progression is associated with extensive remodeling of the tumor microenvironment (TME), resulting in alterations of biochemical and biophysical cues that affect both cancer and stromal cells. In particular, the mechanical characteristics of the TME extracellular matrix undergo significant changes. Bioengineered polymer hydrogels can be instrumental to systematically explore how mechanically changed microenvironments impact cancer cell behavior, including proliferation, survival, drug resistance, and invasion. This article reviews studies that have explored the impact of different mechanical cues of the cells' 3D microenvironment on cancer cell behavior using hydrogel-based in vitro models. In particular, advanced engineering strategies are highlighted for tailored hydrogel matrices recapitulating the TME's micrometer- and sub-micrometer-scale architectural and mechanical features, while accounting for its intrinsically heterogenic and dynamic nature. It is anticipated that such precision hydrogel systems will further the understanding of cancer mechanobiology.

Sustained Release of Human Adipose Tissue Stem Cell Secretome from Star-Shaped Poly(ethylene glycol) Glycosaminoglycan Hydrogels Promotes Motor Improvements after Complete Transection in Spinal Cord Injury Rat Model.

Adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ASCs) have been shown to assist regenerative processes after spinal cord injury (SCI) through their secretome, which promotes several regenerative mechanisms, such as inducing axonal growth, reducing inflammation, promoting cell survival, and vascular remodeling, thus ultimately leading to functional recovery. However, while systemic delivery (e.g., i.v. [intravenous]) may cause off-target effects in different organs, the local administration has low efficiency due to fast clearance by body fluids. Herein, a delivery system for human ASCs secretome based on a hydrogel formed of star-shaped poly(ethylene glycol) (starPEG) and the glycosaminoglycan heparin (Hep) that is suitable to continuously release pro-regenerative signaling mediators such as interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, glial-cell neurotrophic factor, and beta-nerve growth factor over 10 days, is reported. The released secretome is shown to induce differentiation of human neural progenitor cells and neurite outgrowth in organotypic spinal cord slices. In a complete transection SCI rat model, the secretome-loaded hydrogel significantly improves motor function by reducing the percentage of ameboid microglia and systemically elevates levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Delivery of ASC-derived secretome from starPEG-Hep hydrogels may therefore offer unprecedented options for regenerative therapy of SCI.

Exploring the Potential of PEG-Heparin Hydrogels to Support Long-Term Ex Vivo Culture of Patient-Derived Breast Explant Tissues.

Breast cancer is a complex, highly heterogenous, and dynamic disease and the leading cause of cancer-related death in women worldwide. Evaluation of the heterogeneity of breast cancer and its various subtypes is crucial to identify novel treatment strategies that can overcome the limitations of currently available options. Explant cultures of human mammary tissue have been known to provide important insights for the study of breast cancer structure and phenotype as they include the context of the surrounding microenvironment, allowing for the comprehensive exploration of patient heterogeneity. However, the major limitation of currently available techniques remains the short-term viability of the tissue owing to loss of structural integrity. Here, an ex vivo culture model using star-shaped poly(ethylene glycol) and maleimide-functionalized heparin (PEG-HM) hydrogels to provide structural support to the explant cultures is presented. The mechanical support allows the culture of the human mammary tissue for up to 3 weeks and prevent disintegration of the cellular structures including the epithelium and surrounding stromal tissue. Further, maintenance of epithelial phenotype and hormonal receptors is observed for up to 2 weeks of culture which makes them relevant for testing therapeutic interventions. Through this study, the importance of donor-to-donor variability and intra-patient tissue heterogeneity is reiterated.

A Tumor Microenvironment Model of Pancreatic Cancer to Elucidate Responses toward Immunotherapy.

Pancreatic cancer is a devastating malignancy with minimal treatment options. Standard-of-care therapy, including surgery and chemotherapy, is unsatisfactory, and therapies harnessing the immune system have been unsuccessful in clinical trials. Resistance to therapy and disease progression are mediated by the tumor microenvironment, which contains excessive amounts of extracellular matrix and stromal cells, acting as a barrier to drug delivery. There is a lack of preclinical pancreatic cancer models that reconstruct the extracellular, cellular, and biomechanical elements of tumor tissues to assess responses toward immunotherapy. To address this limitation and explore the effects of immunotherapy in combination with chemotherapy, a multicellular 3D cancer model using a star-shaped poly(ethylene glycol)-heparin hydrogel matrix is developed. Human pancreatic cancer cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts, and myeloid cells are grown encapsulated in hydrogels to mimic key components of tumor tissues, and cell responses toward treatment are assessed. Combining the CD11b agonist ADH-503 with anti-PD-1 immunotherapy and chemotherapy leads to a significant reduction in tumor cell viability, proliferation, metabolic activity, immunomodulation, and secretion of immunosuppressive and tumor growth-promoting cytokines.

Three-Dimensional Biohybrid StarPEG-Heparin Hydrogel Cultures for Modeling Human Neuronal Development and Alzheimer's Disease Pathology.

In this chapter, we present the methodology currently used in our laboratory to generate a starPEG-MMP (starPEG)- and heparin maleimide HM06 (heparin)-based 3D cell culture system, in a hydrogel, that can be used to study human neuronal development and Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. A 3D cell culture system can mimic the in vivo cellular environment better than a 2D format, in which these cells exhibit neural network formation, electrophysiological activity, tissue-specific extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition, and neurotransmitter responsiveness. When treated with amyloid beta-42 (Aß42) peptides, this system recapitulates many of the pathological effects of AD, including reduced neural stem cell proliferation, impaired neuronal network formation, dystrophic axonal ends, synaptic loss, failure to deposit ECM, elevated tau hyperphosphorylation, and formation of neurofibrillary tangles. Culturing human primary cortical astrocyte (pHA)- or induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived human neural stem cells in this biohybrid hydrogel system has led to the discovery of novel regulatory pathways underlying neurodegenerative pathology in different phases of AD.

Inflammation-Controlled Anti-Inflammatory Hydrogels.

While autoregulative adaptation is a common feature of living tissues, only a few feedback-controlled adaptive biomaterials are available so far. This paper herein reports a new polymer hydrogel platform designed to release anti-inflammatory molecules in response to the inflammatory activation of human blood. In this system, anti-inflammatory peptide drugs, targeting either the complement cascade, a complement receptor, or cyclophilin A, are conjugated to the hydrogel by a peptide sequence that is cleaved by elastase released from activated granulocytes. As a proof of concept, the adaptive drug delivery from the gel triggered by activated granulocytes and the effect of the released drug on the respective inflammatory pathways are demonstrated. Adjusting the gel functionalization degree is shown to allow for tuning the drug release profiles to effective doses within a micromolar range. Feedback-controlled delivery of covalently conjugated drugs from a hydrogel matrix is concluded to provide valuable safety features suitable to equip medical devices with highly active anti-inflammatory agents without suppressing the general immunosurveillance.

Colorimetric Biosensors Based on Polymer/Gold Hybrid Nanoparticles: Topological Effects of the Polymer Coating.

Gold nanoparticles decorated with analyte recognition units can form the basis of colorimetric (bio)sensors. The presentation of those recognition units may play a critical role in determining sensor sensitivity. Herein, we use a model system to investigate the effect of the architecture of a polymeric linker that connects gold nanoparticles with the recognition units. Our results show that the number of the latter that can be adsorbed during the assembly of the colorimetric sensors depends on the linker topology. We also show that this may lead to substantial differences in colorimetric sensor performance, particularly in situations in which the interactions with the analyte are comparably weak. Finally, we discuss design principles for efficient colorimetric sensor materials based on our findings.

Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cell-derived extracellular matrix displays altered glycosaminoglycan structure and impaired functionality in Myelodysplastic Syndromes.

Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) comprise a heterogeneous group of hematologic malignancies characterized by clonal hematopoiesis, one or more cytopenias such as anemia, neutropenia, or thrombocytopenia, abnormal cellular maturation, and a high risk of progression to acute myeloid leukemia. The bone marrow microenvironment (BMME) in general and mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) in particular contribute to both the initiation and progression of MDS. However, little is known about the role of MSC-derived extracellular matrix (ECM) in this context. Therefore, we performed a comparative analysis of in vitro deposited MSC-derived ECM of different MDS subtypes and healthy controls. Atomic force microscopy analyses demonstrated that MDS ECM was significantly thicker and more compliant than those from healthy MSCs. Scanning electron microscopy showed a dense meshwork of fibrillar bundles connected by numerous smaller structures that span the distance between fibers in MDS ECM. Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) structures were detectable at high abundance in MDS ECM as white, sponge-like arrays on top of the fibrillar network. Quantification by Blyscan assay confirmed these observations, with higher concentrations of sulfated GAGs in MDS ECM. Fluorescent lectin staining with wheat germ agglutinin and peanut agglutinin demonstrated increased deposition of N-acetyl-glucosamine GAGs (hyaluronan (HA) and heparan sulfate) in low risk (LR) MDS ECM. Differential expression of N-acetyl-galactosamine GAGs (chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate) was observed between LR- and high risk (HR)-MDS. Moreover, increased amounts of HA in the matrix of MSCs from LR-MDS patients were found to correlate with enhanced HA synthase 1 mRNA expression in these cells. Stimulation of mononuclear cells from healthy donors with low molecular weight HA resulted in an increased expression of various pro-inflammatory cytokines suggesting a contribution of the ECM to the inflammatory BMME typical of LR-MDS. CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) displayed an impaired differentiation potential after cultivation on MDS ECM and modified morphology accompanied by decreased integrin expression which mediate cell-matrix interaction. In summary, we provide evidence for structural alterations of the MSC-derived ECM in both LR- and HR-MDS. GAGs may play an important role in this remodeling processes during the malignant transformation which leads to the observed disturbance in the support of normal hematopoiesis.