Cancer prevention, aerobic capacity, and physical functioning in survivors related to physical activity: a recent review.

According to recent published reports, over 12 million new cases of cancer were estimated worldwide for 2007. Estimates from 2008 predict that cancer will account for 22.8% of all deaths in the US. Another report stated 50% to 75% of cancer deaths in the US are related to smoking, poor dietary choices, and physical inactivity. A 2004 report indicated obesity and/or a sedentary lifestyle increases the risk of developing several types of cancer. Conversely, several large-scale cohort studies point to the positive relationship between physical activity and a reduction in cancer risk. In addition, research over the last few years has clearly shown cardiorespiratory benefits, increases in quality of life (QOL), and increases in physical functioning for cancer survivors who engage in exercise programs. Thus, the purpose of this review is to highlight three areas related to cancer and physical activity. First, information concerning the prevention of cancer through physical activity is addressed. Second, recent studies identifying changes in volume of oxygen uptake (VO(2)) and/or cardiorespiratory functioning involving exercise with cancer survivors is presented. Third, studies identifying changes in cancer survivors' physical functional capacity and QOL are presented. Finally, a summary of the review is offered.

Quality of life benefits in cancer survivorship with supervised exercise.

To assess whether a supervised exercise program would benefit cancer survivors' perceived psychological well-being over the course of a 6-mo. program, 8 female and 2 male cancer survivors, ages 45 to 69 (M = 56.2, SD = 8.1) were recruited into the program from a presentation given to a breast-cancer support group and by word of mouth. Activity sessions were two times per week and typically involved treadmill and bicycle ergometer time, plus eight to ten weight-training stations. A quality of life measure was taken at baseline, 3, and 6 mo. Analyses showed a significant increase in quality of life from baseline to 3 mo. and from baseline to 6 mo. Being physically active in a supervised exercise program provided increased perceived benefits in quality of life for these cancer survivors over 6 mo.

Coping styles for trait shame and anxiety intensity and direction in competitive athletes.

The purpose of the study was to assess if athletes who perceived their anxiety as debilitative to performance also scored higher on ratings of coping styles used to handle trait shame. The sample was comprised of 94 participants (males = 44, females = 50) ranging in age from 15 to 24 years (M = 18.8, SD = 2.3). Athletes in high school (n = 21) and college (n = 73) representing several sports were surveyed for this study. Competitive sport experience averaged 11 yr. (SD = 3.9) overall. The Competitive Trait Anxiety Inventory-2D was given to collect general anxiety perceptions related to the athlete's specific sport. The Compass of Shame Scale-Sport was administered to measure coping styles for trait shame responses connected with competitive sport experiences. The athletes were divided into Facilitative (n = 39) and Debilitative anxiety groups (n = 55) based on the overall direction of anxiety scores. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated no interaction, but did reveal significant main effects for sex and anxiety group. Univariate tests indicated significant differences for several of the shame and anxiety subscales based on sex and anxiety group.

Exercise barriers, self-efficacy, and stages of change.

This study assessed whether college students in various stages of change relative to exercise adherence would rate self-efficacy and barriers to exercise differently. A total of 198 participants (49 men, 149 women) ranging in age from 17 to 38 years (M=20.4, SD=2.3) completed surveys measuring exercise behavior, barriers to exercise, and both task and coping self-efficacy. Multivariate tests yielded significant differences in means on task self-efficacy, coping self-efficacy, and perceived barriers to exercise. Implications are that people who do not exercise or exercise sporadically perceive more barriers to exercise than those who exercise regularly. Also, people who exercise regularly rate their confidence higher (i.e., self-efficacy) to overcome obstacles to exercise. Health practitioners may find useful assessments of baseline self-efficacy and perceived barriers before implementing exercise programs.

Multidimensional comparison of anxiety direction and burnout over time.

The purpose of this study was to assess if athletes who perceived their trait anxiety to be debilitative to performance also experienced higher burnout over a competitive season. Volunteers were 53 NCAA Division I and II male (n = 14) and female (n = 39) athletes, ages 18 to 23 years. Participants completed a trait version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2D once and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire three times during the season. A 2 (anxiety direction group) x 3 (time of season) multivariate analysis of variance indicated no significant interaction and no main effect for time of season. A significant main effect for anxiety direction group did emerge, with the Facilitative group reporting significantly lower Burnout scores overall on the Reduced Sense of Accomplishment scale than the Debilitative group. There were no differences found on the other two subscales, Emotional/Physical Exhaustion and Devaluation.

Anxiety and burnout in female collegiate ice hockey and soccer athletes.

The purpose of this study was to assess whether athletes who perceived their scores on trait anxiety to be debilitative to performance also experienced higher burnout scores. 84 NCAA Division I female ice hockey and soccer athletes, ages 18 to 23 years, volunteered. Participants were given a trait version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 with an added direction scale to collect general perceptions of anxiety. They also completed the Burnout Inventory for Athletes. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance for group anxiety yielded an overall significant effect, with the Facilitative group (n = 40) reporting a lower mean burnout score. Mean intensity of cognitive anxiety was significantly higher for the Debilitative group (n = 44), while mean self-confidence intensity was significantly higher for the Facilitative group.

Pilot study of Muslim women's perceptions on religion and sport.

This study surveyed 25 Muslim women from Iran about their religious beliefs about sport while taking part in a softball clinic. Direct quotes were collected, translated into English, transcribed verbatim from surveys, and then inductively analyzed into higher order themes, which included strategies to deal with performance anxiety, presence of friends and family support, and use of religion in sport. Quantitative scores recorded indicated a low positive correlations of .17 between sport and religion, although there were some indications of differences about importance (some rated sport more important than religion). Hypotheses are proposed for study.

Psychophysiological comparison of self-efficacy and resting heart rate.

This study was used to assess the premise that lower resting heart rates should be associated with higher scores on self-efficacy for exercisers. A total of 64 participants, 29 men and 35 women ranging in age from 18 to 38 years old (M = 23.22, SD = 4.19), currently participating in an exercise program at a fitness center, were assessed using the Exercise Specific Self-efficacy Scale to measure general individual self-efficacy, along with obtaining resting heart rates. Participants were separated into three different groups based on individual resting heart-rate values. Results for a 2 (sex) by 3 (heart rate) two-way analysis of variance indicated a significant difference in self-efficacy scores (F(2,58) = 3.24, p<.05) among the three groups. No interaction or main effect for sex was found.