Diazoxon disrupts the expression and distribution of ßIII-tubulin and MAP 1B in differentiating N2a cells.

This study aimed at assessing the effects of diazoxon (DZO), a major metabolite of the insecticide diazinon (DZ), on key cytoskeletal proteins in differentiating N2a neuroblastoma cells. Initial experiments established that sublethal concentrations of 1, 5 and 10 µM DZO produced profound inhibition of neurite outgrowth. Densitometric scanning of probed immunoblots of N2a cell lysates demonstrated that DZO had no effect on total ß-tubulin levels. However, probing with a monoclonal antibody that recognised specifically the ßIII-tubulin isotype revealed that 10 µM DZO induced a significant reduction in the levels of this particular form. Levels of polyglutamylated tubulin were not altered. Exposure to 10 µM DZO also decreased the expression of microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP 1B). However, DZO had no effect on the expression of MAP tau. DZO also failed to affect the levels neurofilament light (NFL) and neurofilament medium (NFM) chain levels. Indirect immunofluorescence demonstrated that the staining of neurites in treated cells was weaker than in the controls for ßIII-tubulin. In conclusion, DZO disrupts the microtubule (MT) network affecting the expression and distribution of two specific MT proteins known to be important in neuritogenesis. DZO may contribute to the developmental neurotoxicity seen following exposure to DZ.

Climate and environmental change drives Ixodes ricinus geographical expansion at the northern range margin.

BACKGROUND: Global environmental change is causing spatial and temporal shifts in the distribution of species and the associated diseases of humans, domesticated animals and wildlife. In the on-going debate on the influence of climate change on vectors and vector-borne diseases, there is a lack of a comprehensive interdisciplinary multi-factorial approach utilizing high quality spatial and temporal data. METHODS: We explored biotic and abiotic factors associated with the latitudinal and altitudinal shifts in the distribution of Ixodes ricinus observed during the last three decades in Norway using antibodies against Anaplasma phagocytophilum in sheep as indicators for tick presence. Samples obtained from 2963 sheep from 90 farms in 3 ecologically different districts during 1978 - 2008 were analysed. We modelled the presence of antibodies against A. phagocytophilum to climatic-, environmental and demographic variables, and abundance of wild cervids and domestic animals, using mixed effect logistic regressions. RESULTS: Significant predictors were large diurnal fluctuations in ground surface temperature, spring precipitation, duration of snow cover, abundance of red deer and farm animals and bush encroachment/ecotones. The length of the growth season, mean temperature and the abundance of roe deer were not significant in the model. CONCLUSIONS: Our results highlight the need to consider climatic variables year-round to disentangle important seasonal variation, climatic threshold changes, climate variability and to consider the broader environmental change, including abiotic and biotic factors. The results offer novel insight in how tick and tick-borne disease distribution might be modified by future climate and environmental change.

Expression of p44 variant-specific antibodies in sheep persistently infected with Anaplasma phagocytophilum.

Sheep infected with Anaplasma phagocytophilum, the causative agent of tick-borne fever (TBF), develop humoral immune responses 7-14 days after infection. Those individuals that survive acute TBF develop persistent infection, which may last for several months or even for life. The persistence of infection and recurrent bacteraemia is thought to be due to p44-mediated antigenic variation. The present study mapped linear B-cell epitopes within the hypervariable region (HVR) of the surface membrane protein P44 and investigated whether the development of antibodies against B cell epitopes within the HVR was preceded by the expression of p44 variants. Serum samples obtained from five sheep infected with the Old Sourhope strain of A. phagocytophilum (AP-OS) were used to detect antibody reactivity against 20-mer overlapping synthetic peptides spanning the HVR of two p44 variants which were expressed during primary bacteraemia and 3 variants expressed during secondary bacteraemia. The results showed that all five p44 variants of AP-OS have dominant B-cell epitopes residing mainly in the 3rd and 7th of the 10-11 peptides mapping each HVR. Antibody reactivity against peptides of the HVR of all the variants was characterised by a gradual rise, reaching peak levels in samples obtained 24 days post-inoculation (dpi) followed by a gradual decline. Anamnestic responses to whole cell antigens and to some of the dominant antigenic epitopes were detected in some of the animals, which were monitored for 52 weeks.

The prevalence of bovine venereal campylobacteriosis in cattle herds in the Lake Chad basin of Nigeria.

The prevalence of bovine venereal campylobacteriosis (BVC) was investigated in the Lake Chad basin of Nigeria. Preputial washings and cervico-vaginal mucus samples were obtained from 270 cattle presenting a history of abortion and lowered fertility, kept in traditional and institutional farms. All the samples investigated were cultured using standard bacteriological technique. Campylobacter fetus was isolated from six bulls and four cows. In all cattle sampled, the isolation rates were 2.2% for C. fetus subsp. venerealis and 1.5% for C. fetus subsp. fetus; the herd and within-herd prevalence rates for C. fetus were 22.2% and 3.4%, respectively, while the overall active infectivity rate was 3.7%. BVC probably contributes to lowered fertility and abortions found in cattle in the Lake Chad basin of Nigeria, associated more with C. fetus subsp. venerealis than C. fetus subsp. fetus.

Fipronil interferes with the differentiation of mouse N2a neuroblastoma cells.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the neurotoxic potential of the pesticide fipronil (FIP) towards the differentiation of mouse N2a neuroblastoma cells. At concentrations of 1, 5 and 10 µM that were not cytotoxic, as shown by two different cell viability assays, FIP impaired potently after 24h the development of axon-like processes, with a concentration of 1 µM causing 50% inhibition. Densitometric analysis of immunoblots of extracts of N2a cells exposed to FIP demonstrated that the axon-inhibitory action of the pesticide was not accompanied by significant changes in the levels of total and phosphorylated neurofilament heavy chain (NFH). FIP also induced no alteration in the levels of total and tyrosinated α-tubulin. On the other hand, this pesticide caused severe disruption of the developmentally important ERK 1/2-MAP kinase signal transduction pathway, as evidenced by significant reductions in the activation state of MAPK kinase (MEK 1/2) and, particularly, ERK 1/2. The above data seem to justify very recent concerns that FIP has the capacity to induce developmental neurotoxicity in mammals.

Detection of antibodies specific to Campylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis in the vaginal mucus of Nigerian breeding cows.

The presence of bovine venereal campylobacteriosis in the Lake Chad Basin of Nigeria was investigated using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of IgA antibodies specific to Campylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis in vaginal mucus (n = 66). IgA antibodies specific to C. fetus subsp. venerealis were detected in 7 (11%) vaginal mucus samples. All but one of the IgA-positive samples originated from cows belonging to herds with a history of abortion and infertility which suggested an association between antibody detection and poor herd fertility. It was concluded that bovine venereal campylobacteriosis is prevalent in the Lake Chad Basin of Nigeria and its contribution to reduced reproductive performance in cattle herds may be grossly underestimated in this part of the world.

Udder shape and teat-end lesions as potential risk factors for high somatic cell counts and intra-mammary infections in dairy cows.

The association of common bacterial pathogens in milk samples during calving with udder shape or the presence of 'teat-end' lesions was investigated in 240 dairy cows from two herds. Sixty-three of 120 cows (53%) in one herd (herd A) and 54/120 animals (45%) in a second herd (herd B) had normal-shaped udders. The remaining animals had udder shapes defined as follows: large pendulous (18% herd A, 26% herd B); large between hindquarter (10% herd A, 17% herd B); overall small (8% herd A, 5% herd B); or small but pendulous (11% herd A, 7% herd B). At calving teat-end lesions were present in 63% and 76% of the quarters of herd A and B animals, respectively. There was no herd effect on udder shape or teat-end lesions. Analysis of variance revealed that udder shape and teat-end lesions did not have a significant association with quarter somatic cell count. However there was some association between mammary infection and udder shape and teat-end lesions. Compared to other udder shapes, cows with large between hindquarter shape had significantly less Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus uberis infection (P<0.001). There was a similar albeit less significant negative association with Escherichia coli infection (P<0.01). Infection with Streptococcus agalactiae and Streptococcus dysgalactiae was more frequent in cows with large pendulous and overall small udder conformations. The results also suggest an association between intra-mammary infection at calving and the presence of hyperkeratotic teat-end lesions, given that S. aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci, S. uberis, S. agalactiae and E. coli were cultured from significantly more quarters with such lesions than from quarters without lesions or with other types of lesion (P<0.001).

The natural history of Anaplasma phagocytophilum.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is the recently designated name replacing three species of granulocytic bacteria, Ehrlichia phagocytophila, Ehrlichia equi and the agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis, after the recent reorganization of the families Rickettsiaceae and Anaplasmataceae in the order Rickettsiales. Tick-borne fever (TBF), which is caused by the prototype of A. phagocytophilum, was first described in 1932 in Scotland. A similar disease caused by a related granulocytic agent was first described in horses in the USA in 1969; this was followed by the description of two distinct granulocytic agents causing similar diseases in dogs in the USA in 1971 and 1982. Until the discovery of human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA) in the USA in 1994, these organisms were thought to be distinct species of bacteria infecting specific domestic animals and free-living reservoirs. It is now widely accepted that the agents affecting different animal hosts are variants of the same Gram-negative obligatory intracellular bacterium, which is transmitted by hard ticks belonging to the Ixodes persulcatus complex. One of its fascinating features is that it infects and actively grows in neutrophils by employing an array of mechanisms to subvert their bactericidal activity. It is also able to survive within an apparently immune host by employing a complex mechanism of antigenic variation. Ruminants with TBF and humans with HGA develop severe febrile reaction, bacteraemia and leukopenia due to neutropenia, lymphocytopenia and thrombocytopenia within a week of exposure to a tick bite. Because of the severe haematological disorders lasting for several days and other adverse effects on the host's immune functions, infected animals and humans are more susceptible to other infections.

Delineating Anaplasma phagocytophilum ecotypes in coexisting, discrete enzootic cycles.

The emerging tick-borne pathogen Anaplasma phagocytophilum is under increasing scrutiny for the existence of subpopulations that are adapted to different natural cycles. Here, we characterized the diversity of A. phagocytophilum genotypes circulating in a natural system that includes multiple hosts and at least 2 tick species, Ixodes ricinus and the small mammal specialist I. trianguliceps. We encountered numerous genotypes, but only 1 in rodents, with the remainder limited to deer and host-seeking I. ricinus ticks. The absence of the rodent-associated genotype from host-seeking I. ricinus ticks was notable because we demonstrated that rodents fed a large proportion of the I. ricinus larval population and that these larvae were abundant when infections caused by the rodent-associated genotype were prevalent. These observations are consistent with the conclusion that genotypically distinct subpopulations of A. phagocytophilum are restricted to coexisting but separate enzootic cycles and suggest that this restriction may result from specific vector compatibility.

Diazinon oxon affects the differentiation of mouse N2a neuroblastoma cells.

The aim of this study was to assess the neurotoxicity of diazinon oxon (DZO), a major in vivo metabolite of the phosphorothionate insecticide diazinon (DZ), on differentiating mouse N2a neuroblastoma cells. When used at concentrations of 1, 5 and 10 microM, DZO did not cause cell death but it impaired the outgrowth of axon-like processes after 24 h. Densitometric scanning of Western blots of lysates of N2a cells revealed that exposure to 5 or 10 microM DZO for 24 h increased the expression of phosphorylated neurofilament heavy chain (NFH) compared to controls, while there was no significant change in total NFH. By contrast, treatment of N2a cells with 1-10 microM DZO resulted in marked reductions in the expression of the axon growth-associated protein GAP-43. DZO-treated cells also showed an increased expression of the heat shock protein HSP-70 compared to controls. The above biochemical changes were not temporally related to inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). These data suggest that biologically relevant, subcytotoxic levels of DZO may exert neurotoxic effects on differentiating cells and that the mechanisms involved are different from those attributed to its parent compound.

Dynamic transmission of numerous Anaplasma phagocytophilum genotypes among lambs in an infected sheep flock in an area of anaplasmosis endemicity.

The transmission dynamics of Anaplasma phagocytophilum strains circulating within juvenile members of a sheep flock grazing on an Ixodes ricinus-infested pasture in southern Norway were monitored. PCR-based detection of the bacterial p44 fragments in the blood of 16 lambs sampled weekly for 16 weeks following their release into pasture revealed rickettsemia in all animals, with an increasing proportion of infected animals as the survey progressed. Comparison of partial msp4 sequences obtained from infected blood samples revealed 24 distinct genotypes, some of which were repeatedly encountered, occurring in up to six sheep over a 14-week period, whereas others were observed only once. Individual sheep were infected by up to five distinct genotypes, with a specific genotype being encountered for between one and three consecutive weeks, and in some sheep, genotypes detected early in the study were also present in later samples. In general, detection of A. phagocytophilum by PCR correlated well with the observation of infected neutrophils in blood smears. Together these results reveal a previously unrecognized diversity of A. phagocytophilum strains simultaneously circulating within an infected population in an area of endemicity and are consistent with a remarkably dynamic transmission of strains among infected animals.

Immune evasion and immunosuppression by Anaplasma phagocytophilum, the causative agent of tick-borne fever of ruminants and human granulocytic anaplasmosis.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum, the causative agent of tick-borne fever (TBF) in sheep and cattle and human granulocytic anaplasmosis, has the unique ability to infect and multiply within neutrophils, eosinophils and monocytes, cells at the frontline of the immune system. Infection with A. phagocytophilum is also characterized by severe leukopenia due to lymphocytopenia, neutropenia and thrombocytopenia lasting for several days. By itself TBF does not cause high mortality rates but infected animals are more susceptible to other secondary infections, pregnant animals may abort and there is a severe reduction in milk yield in dairy cattle. The susceptibility to secondary infections can be attributed to the leukopenia that accompanies the disease and the organism's adverse effects on lymphocyte and neutrophil functions. One of its fascinating features is that it infects and actively grows in neutrophils by employing an array of mechanisms to subvert their bactericidal activity. These include its ability to inhibit phagosome-lysosome fusion, to suppress respiratory burst and to delay the apoptotic death of neutrophils. It is also able to survive within an apparently immune host by employing a complex mechanism of antigenic variation.

High-resolution genetic fingerprinting of European strains of Anaplasma phagocytophilum by use of multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a widely distributed tick-borne pathogen of humans, livestock, and companion animals. We used in silico methods to identify 10 variable-number tandem-repeat (VNTR) loci within the genome sequence of the A. phagocytophilum HZ strain and used these data to develop a multilocus VNTR-based typing scheme for the species. Having confirmed the stability of four of the loci in replicates of the A. phagocytophilum strain that had been subjected to different numbers of passages through cell cocultures in vitro, we then used this typing scheme to discriminate between 20 A. phagocytophilum strains of diverse geographical and host provenances. Extensive diversity was found at each of the four loci studied, with total allele numbers ranging from 13 to 18 and Hunter-Gaston discriminatory index values ranging from 0.93 to 0.99. Only 2 of the 20 strains examined shared alleles at all four loci. The discriminatory power of VNTR analysis was found to be greater than that of either partial msp4 or 16S rRNA gene sequence comparison. The extremely high sensitivity of this novel approach to the genetic fingerprinting of A. phagocytophilum strains should serve well in molecular epidemiological studies of infection transmission, particularly when fine-scale strain delineation is required.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum in ruminants in Europe.

The agent that causes tick-borne fever (TBF) in sheep was first described in 1940, 8 years after the disease was first recognized in Scotland. The same agent was soon shown to cause TBF in sheep and pasture fever in cattle in other parts of the UK, Scandinavia, and other parts of Europe. After the initial use of the name Rickettsia phagocytophila, the organism was given the name Cytoecetes phagocytophila to reflect its association with granulocytes and its morphological similarity with Cytoecetes microti. This name continued to be used by workers in the UK until the recent reclassification of the granulocytic ehrlichiae affecting ruminants, horses, and humans as variants of the same species, Anaplasma phagocytophilum. TBF and pasture fever are characterized by high fever, recurrent bacteremia, neutropenia, lymphocytopenia, thrombocytopenia, and general immunosuppression, resulting in more severe secondary infections such as tick pyemia, pneumonic pasteurellosis, listeriosis, and enterotoxemia. During the peak period of bacteremia as many as 90% of granulocytes may be infected. The agent is transmitted transtadially by the hard tick Ixodes ricinus, and possibly other ticks. After patent bacteremia, sheep, goats, and cattle become persistently infected "carriers," perhaps playing an important role in the maintenance of infection, in the flock/herd. Little is known about how efficiently ticks acquire and maintain infection in ruminant populations or whether "carrier" domestic ruminants play an important role as reservoirs of infection, but deer, other free-living ruminants, and wild rodents are also potential sources of infection. During the late 1990s serological evidence of infection of humans was demonstrated in several European countries, creating a renewed interest and increased awareness of the zoonotic potential of TBF variants. More recently, a few cases of human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA) have been reported in some European countries, but it remains to be established whether the variants causing HGA in Europe are genetically and biologically different from those causing TBF in ruminants. TBF is readily diagnosed by demonstrating intracytoplasmic inclusions in peripheral blood granulocytes or monocytes of febrile animals or by detecting specific DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and TBF variants of A. phagocytophilum can be cultivated in tick cell lines, but the differentiation of TBF variants from HGA variants awaits further investigations.

Clinical laboratory advances in the detection of rabies virus.

Rabies is one of the most feared zoonotic diseases in the world. All warm-blooded animals are susceptible to infection by the virus, but the main vectors of human infection are dogs and cats. Development of rabies can be prevented by postexposure vaccination, and with a few exceptions, the exact time and source of human infection is usually known. However, the effective use of postexposure vaccination depends on the rapid and accurate detection of rabies virus in specimens obtained from the source of human infection. This paper provides an overview on developments on laboratory methods for the early detection of rabies virus. In most laboratories, the fluorescent antibody test (FAT) is used as the most important primary test, with the rabies tissue culture infection test (RTCIT) or the mouse inoculation test (MIT) being used as confirmatory backup procedures. However, other methods for the detection of antigens, such as rapid rabies-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (rapid-ELISA) and the detection of viral nucleic acids by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) are increasingly being used for diagnosis and, in combination with nucleotide sequencing, for epidemiological investigations.

Polymorphism and transcription at the p44-1/p44-18 genomic locus in Anaplasma phagocytophilum strains from diverse geographic regions.

A polymorphic multigene family (p44) of Anaplasma phagocytophilum encodes the immunodominant 44-kDa major outer membrane proteins. With p44-specific PCR and gene-specific probes, p44-1 was found in all human isolates from New York State but not in isolates from Minnesota, whereas p44-18 and two other p44 species were found in isolates from both regions. We therefore sequenced the genomic locus corresponding to the p44-1/p44-18 tandem locus of A. phagocytophilum HZ in 14 other geographically divergent strains from various hosts. The locus was found in all 14 strains, and p44-18 was conserved among all 13 United States isolates studied. In all nine northeastern strains, p44-1 was conserved. However, in three of the Minnesota strains and in one California strain, p44-1 was replaced at this genomic locus by the novel gene p44-61 (p44-61/18), whose hypervariable region (hv) was a chimera of p44-20hv and p44-23hv. The conserved base sequence within the hv region linked the two segments. In contrast, in the Old Sourhope strain isolated from sheep in the United Kingdom, only a single and distinct p44, p44-OS, was found in this locus. This suggests different rates of evolution of p44-1 and p44-18 at this locus and conservation of the locus within strains isolated from the same geographic region. Locus-specific reverse transcription-PCR revealed expression of p44-1 by New York and p44-61 by Minnesota strains at this locus. These p44 loci provide insight into the molecular evolution and functional divergence of p44 paralogs and may serve as markers for typing strains from different geographic regions.

Q fever (coxiellosis): epidemiology and pathogenesis.

Q fever is a widespread zoonosis caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Coxiella burnetii. Aborting domestic ruminants are the main sources of human infection but the reservoir of infection is extremely wide. In humans, Q fever may occur as acute pneumonia, hepatitis or flu-like illness or may take a severe chronic form, characterized by endocarditis, chronic hepatitis and chronic fatigue syndrome. In animals, the main clinical manifestation is late abortion. Infection with C. burnetii can be diagnosed using cultural, serological and genetic methods but because the organism is potentially dangerous and requires specialized skills only specialist laboratories are capable of undertaking diagnostic tests. This paper provides a brief overview of the epidemiology and pathogenesis of Q fever (coxiellosis).

Anaplasma phagocytophilum has a functional msp2 gene that is distinct from p44.

The msp2 and p44 genes encode polymorphic major outer membrane proteins that are considered unique to the intraerythrocytic agent of Anaplasma marginale and the intragranulocytic agent of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, respectively. In the present study, however, we found an msp2 gene in A. phagocytophilum that was remarkably conserved among A. phagocytophilum strains from human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA) patients, ticks, and a horse from various regions in the United States, but the gene was different in a sheep isolate from the United Kingdom. The msp2 gene in the A. phagocytophilum strain HZ genome was a single-copy gene and was located downstream of two Ehrlichia chaffeensis omp-1 homologs and a decarboxylase gene (ubiD). The msp2 gene was expressed by A. phagocytophilum in the blood from HGA patients NY36 and NY37 and by A. phagocytophilum isolates from these patients cultured in HL-60 cells at 37 degrees C. The msp2 gene was also expressed in a DBA/2 mouse infected by attaching ticks infected with strain NTN-1 and in a horse experimentally infected by attaching strain HZ-infected ticks. However, the transcript of the msp2 gene was undetectable in A. phagocytophilum strain HZ in SCID mice and Ixodes scapularis ticks infected with strain NTN-1. These results indicate that msp2 is functional in various strains of A. phagocytophilum, and relative expression ratios of msp2 to p44 vary in different infected hosts. These findings may be important in understanding roles that Msp2 proteins play in granulocytic ehrlichia infection and evolution of the polymorphic major outer membrane protein gene families in Anaplasma species.