Mechanistic understanding of KCNQ1 activating polyunsaturated fatty acid analogs.

The KCNQ1 channel is important for the repolarization phase of the cardiac action potential. Loss of function mutations in KCNQ1 can cause long QT syndrome (LQTS), which can lead to cardiac arrythmia and even sudden cardiac death. We have previously shown that polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and PUFA analogs can activate the cardiac KCNQ1 channel, making them potential therapeutics for the treatment of LQTS. PUFAs bind to KCNQ1 at two different binding sites: one at the voltage sensor (Site I) and one at the pore (Site II). PUFA interaction at Site I shifts the voltage dependence of the channel to the left, while interaction at Site II increases maximal conductance. The PUFA analogs, linoleic-glycine and linoleic-tyrosine, are more effective than linoleic acid at Site I, but less effective at Site II. Using both simulations and experiments, we find that the larger head groups of linoleic-glycine and linoleic-tyrosine interact with more residues than the smaller linoleic acid at Site I. We propose that this will stabilize the negatively charged PUFA head group in a position to better interact electrostatically with the positively charges in the voltage sensor. In contrast, the larger head groups of linoleic-glycine and linoleic-tyrosine compared with linoleic acid prevent a close fit of these PUFA analogs in Site II, which is more confined. In addition, we identify several KCNQ1 residues as critical PUFA-analog binding residues, thereby providing molecular models of specific interactions between PUFA analogs and KCNQ1. These interactions will aid in future drug development based on PUFA-KCNQ1 channel interactions.

Endocannabinoids enhance hKV7.1/KCNE1 channel function and shorten the cardiac action potential and QT interval.

BACKGROUND: Genotype-positive patients who suffer from the cardiac channelopathy Long QT Syndrome (LQTS) may display a spectrum of clinical phenotypes, with often unknown causes. Therefore, there is a need to identify factors influencing disease severity to move towards an individualized clinical management of LQTS. One possible factor influencing the disease phenotype is the endocannabinoid system, which has emerged as a modulator of cardiovascular function. In this study, we aim to elucidate whether endocannabinoids target the cardiac voltage-gated potassium channel KV7.1/KCNE1, which is the most frequently mutated ion channel in LQTS. METHODS: We used two-electrode voltage clamp, molecular dynamics simulations and the E4031 drug-induced LQT2 model of ex-vivo guinea pig hearts. FINDINGS: We found a set of endocannabinoids that facilitate channel activation, seen as a shifted voltage-dependence of channel opening and increased overall current amplitude and conductance. We propose that negatively charged endocannabinoids interact with known lipid binding sites at positively charged amino acids on the channel, providing structural insights into why only specific endocannabinoids modulate KV7.1/KCNE1. Using the endocannabinoid ARA-S as a prototype, we show that the effect is not dependent on the KCNE1 subunit or the phosphorylation state of the channel. In guinea pig hearts, ARA-S was found to reverse the E4031-prolonged action potential duration and QT interval. INTERPRETATION: We consider the endocannabinoids as an interesting class of hKV7.1/KCNE1 channel modulators with putative protective effects in LQTS contexts. FUNDING: ERC (No. 850622), Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Canada Research Chairs and Compute Canada, Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing.

Identification of PUFA interaction sites on the cardiac potassium channel KCNQ1.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), but not saturated fatty acids, modulate ion channels such as the cardiac KCNQ1 channel, although the mechanism is not completely understood. Using both simulations and experiments, we find that PUFAs interact directly with the KCNQ1 channel via two different binding sites: one at the voltage sensor and one at the pore. These two amphiphilic binding pockets stabilize the negatively charged PUFA head group by electrostatic interactions with R218, R221, and K316, while the hydrophobic PUFA tail is selectively stabilized by cassettes of hydrophobic residues. The rigid saturated tail of stearic acid prevents close contacts with KCNQ1. By contrast, the mobile tail of PUFA linoleic acid can be accommodated in the crevice of the hydrophobic cassette, a defining feature of PUFA selectivity in KCNQ1. In addition, we identify Y268 as a critical PUFA anchor point underlying fatty acid selectivity. Combined, this study provides molecular models of direct interactions between PUFAs and KCNQ1 and identifies selectivity mechanisms. Long term, this understanding may open new avenues for drug development based on PUFA mechanisms.

Resin-acid derivatives bind to multiple sites on the voltage-sensor domain of the Shaker potassium channel.

Voltage-gated potassium (KV) channels can be opened by negatively charged resin acids and their derivatives. These resin acids have been proposed to attract the positively charged voltage-sensor helix (S4) toward the extracellular side of the membrane by binding to a pocket located between the lipid-facing extracellular ends of the transmembrane segments S3 and S4. By contrast to this proposed mechanism, neutralization of the top gating charge of the Shaker KV channel increased resin-acid-induced opening, suggesting other mechanisms and sites of action. Here, we explore the binding of two resin-acid derivatives, Wu50 and Wu161, to the activated/open state of the Shaker KV channel by a combination of in silico docking, molecular dynamics simulations, and electrophysiology of mutated channels. We identified three potential resin-acid-binding sites around S4: (1) the S3/S4 site previously suggested, in which positively charged residues introduced at the top of S4 are critical to keep the compound bound, (2) a site in the cleft between S4 and the pore domain (S4/pore site), in which a tryptophan at the top of S6 and the top gating charge of S4 keeps the compound bound, and (3) a site located on the extracellular side of the voltage-sensor domain, in a cleft formed by S1-S4 (the top-VSD site). The multiple binding sites around S4 and the anticipated helical-screw motion of the helix during activation make the effect of resin-acid derivatives on channel function intricate. The propensity of a specific resin acid to activate and open a voltage-gated channel likely depends on its exact binding dynamics and the types of interactions it can form with the protein in a state-specific manner.

Targeting the NF-κB/IκBα complex via fragment-based E-Pharmacophore virtual screening and binary QSAR models.

Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) transcription factors represent a conserved family of proteins that regulate not only immune cells, but also heart cells, glial cells and neurons, playing a fundamental role in various cellular processes. Due to its dysregulation in certain cancer types as well as in chronic inflammation and autoimmune diseases, it has recently been appreciated as an important therapeutic target. The aim of this study was to investigate the binding pocket of NF-κB (p50/p65) heterodimer complex in association with NF-κB inhibitor IκBα to identify potent ligands via fragment-based e-pharmacophore screening. The ZINC Clean Fragments (∼2 million) and the Schrodinger's medically relevant Glide fragments library (∼670) were used to create the e-pharmacophore models at the potential binding site which was validated by site mapping. Glide/HTVS docking was conducted followed by re-docking of the top 20% fragments by Glide/SP and Glide/XP protocols. The top-85000 Glide XP-docked fragments were used to generate the e-pharmacophore hypotheses. The Otava small molecule library (∼260000 drug-like molecules) and 85 known NF-κB inhibitors were additionally screened against the derived e-pharmacophore models. The top-1000 high-scored molecules, which were well aligned to the e-pharmacophore models, from the Otava small molecule library, were then docked into the binding pocket. Finally, the selected 88 hit molecules and the 85 known inhibitors were analyzed by the MetaCore/MetaDrug™ platform, which uses developed binary QSAR models for therapeutic activity prediction as well as pharmacokinetic and toxicity profile predictions of screening molecules. Ligand selection criteria led to the refinement of 3 potent hit molecules using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to better investigate their structural and dynamical profiles. The selected hit molecules had a low toxicity and a significant therapeutic potential for heart failure, antiviral activity, asthma and depression, all conditions in which NF-κB plays a critical role. These hit ligands were also structurally stable at the NF-κB/IκBα complex as per the MD simulations and MM/GBSA analysis. Two of these ligands (Otava IDs: 1426436 and 6248112) showed stronger binding and therefore are hypothesized to be more potent. The identification of new potent NF-κB/IκBα inhibitors may thus present a novel therapy for inflammation-mediated conditions as well as cancer, facilitating more efficient research, and leading the way to future drug development efforts.

Mechanisms Underlying the Dual Effect of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Analogs on Kv7.1.

Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) analogs represent a new class of potential anti-arrhythmic KV7.1 and KV7.1+KCNE1 channel activators. In this study, we describe dual independent activating effects of negatively charged PUFA analogs on KV7.1 and KV7.1+KCNE1 that are dependent on discrete channel motifs. PUFA analogs are critically dependent on K326 in S6 of KV7.1 to increase the maximum conductance and critically dependent on specific S4 arginines in KV7.1 to shift the voltage dependence of channel opening toward negative voltages. Our findings provide insights into how KV7.1+KCNE1 activators may interact electrostatically both with the pore domain and the voltage-sensing domain to augment channel activity. We believe that the molecular understanding of how PUFA analogs induce dual independent activating effects is an important step toward the development of effective anti-arrhythmic drugs that target KV7.1 channels.

A drug pocket at the lipid bilayer-potassium channel interface.

Many pharmaceutical drugs against neurological and cardiovascular disorders exert their therapeutic effects by binding to specific sites on voltage-gated ion channels of neurons or cardiomyocytes. To date, all molecules targeting known ion channel sites bind to protein pockets that are mainly surrounded by water. We describe a lipid-protein drug-binding pocket of a potassium channel. We synthesized and electrophysiologically tested 125 derivatives, analogs, and related compounds to dehydroabietic acid. Functional data in combination with docking and molecular dynamics simulations mapped a binding site for small-molecule compounds at the interface between the lipid bilayer and the transmembrane segments S3 and S4 of the voltage-sensor domain. This fundamentally new binding site for small-molecule compounds paves the way for the design of new types of drugs against diseases caused by altered excitability.

Double phosphorylation-induced structural changes in the signal-receiving domain of IκBα in complex with NF-κB.

Activation of the transcription factor NF-κB requires degradation of its physiological inhibitor IκBα in order to allow nuclear translocation of NF-κB. NF-κB activity links inflammation and carcinogenesis and makes its signaling pathway an important target for therapeutic intervention. The signal-receiving N-terminal domain (SRD) of the NF-κB inhibitor IκBα harbors the sites of post-translational modifications (Ser32 and 36) directed by the IκB kinase (IKK) complex. The SRD was originally recognized to be highly disordered, but was recently shown to possess stable secondary structural elements. Identifying and characterizing the structural effects that arise from phosphorylation may explain how phosphorylation regulates the IκBα-NF-κB protein complex. Therefore, the effect of post-translational mono- and double-phosphorylation of the serine residues of the SRD was analyzed. The structural modifications of the IκBα-NF-κB protein-protein complex due to mono-phosphorylation of either Ser32 or Ser36 amino acid residues or simultaneous phosphorylation were investigated by means of molecular dynamics simulations. Mono-phosphorylation at either Ser32 or Ser36 was not sufficient to induce significant structural changes in the secondary structure of the SRD of IκBα. Double-phosphorylation yielded an increase in distance between the Cα atoms of these serine residues, indicative of a structural change. Only this two-fold phosphorylation induced the extended, more stabilized conformation of the degron motif which renders it accessible by the E3 ligase. In summary, these results provide insight into the conformational changes induced in IκBα proteins upon phosphorylation that are vital to their signaling dynamics and enable us to propose a model for the phosphorylation of the SRD. Proteins 2016; 85:17-29. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Topology based identification and comprehensive classification of four-transmembrane helix containing proteins (4TMs) in the human genome.

BACKGROUND: Membrane proteins are key components in a large spectrum of diverse functions and thus account for the major proportion of the drug-targeted portion of the genome. From a structural perspective, the α-helical transmembrane proteins can be categorized into major groups based on the number of transmembrane helices and these groups are often associated with specific functions. When compared to the well-characterized seven-transmembrane containing proteins (7TM), other TM groups are less explored and in particular the 4TM group. In this study, we identify the complete 4TM complement from the latest release of the human genome and assess the 4TM structure group as a whole. We functionally characterize this dataset and evaluate the resulting groups and ubiquitous functions, and furthermore describe disease and drug target involvement. RESULTS: We classified 373 proteins, which represents ~7 % of the human membrane proteome, and includes 69 more proteins than our previous estimate. We have characterized the 4TM dataset based on functional, structural, and/or evolutionary similarities. Proteins that are involved in transport activity constitute 37 % of the dataset, 23 % are receptor-related, and 13 % have enzymatic functions. Intriguingly, proteins involved in transport are more than double the 15 % of transporters in the entire human membrane proteome, which might suggest that the 4TM topological architecture is more favored for transporting molecules over other functions. Moreover, we found an interesting exception to the ubiquitous intracellular N- and C-termini localization that is found throughout the entire membrane proteome and 4TM dataset in the neurotransmitter gated ion channel families. Overall, we estimate that 58 % of the dataset has a known association to disease conditions with 19 % of the genes possibly involved in different types of cancer. CONCLUSIONS: We provide here the most robust and updated classification of the 4TM complement of the human genome as a platform to further understand the characteristics of 4TM functions and to explore pharmacological opportunities.

The Molecular Basis of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Interactions with the Shaker Voltage-Gated Potassium Channel.

Voltage-gated potassium (KV) channels are membrane proteins that respond to changes in membrane potential by enabling K+ ion flux across the membrane. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) induce channel opening by modulating the voltage-sensitivity, which can provide effective treatment against refractory epilepsy by means of a ketogenic diet. While PUFAs have been reported to influence the gating mechanism by electrostatic interactions to the voltage-sensor domain (VSD), the exact PUFA-protein interactions are still elusive. In this study, we report on the interactions between the Shaker KV channel in open and closed states and a PUFA-enriched lipid bilayer using microsecond molecular dynamics simulations. We determined a putative PUFA binding site in the open state of the channel located at the protein-lipid interface in the vicinity of the extracellular halves of the S3 and S4 helices of the VSD. In particular, the lipophilic PUFA tail covered a wide range of non-specific hydrophobic interactions in the hydrophobic central core of the protein-lipid interface, while the carboxylic head group displayed more specific interactions to polar/charged residues at the extracellular regions of the S3 and S4 helices, encompassing the S3-S4 linker. Moreover, by studying the interactions between saturated fatty acids (SFA) and the Shaker KV channel, our study confirmed an increased conformational flexibility in the polyunsaturated carbon tails compared to saturated carbon chains, which may explain the specificity of PUFA action on channel proteins.

Structural modeling of the N-terminal signal-receiving domain of IκBα.

The transcription factor nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) exerts essential roles in many biological processes including cell growth, apoptosis and innate and adaptive immunity. The NF-κB inhibitor (IκBα) retains NF-κB in the cytoplasm and thus inhibits nuclear localization of NF-κB and its association with DNA. Recent protein crystal structures of the C-terminal part of IκBα in complex with NF-κB provided insights into the protein-protein interactions but could not reveal structural details about the N-terminal signal receiving domain (SRD). The SRD of IκBα contains a degron, formed following phosphorylation by IκB kinases (IKK). In current protein X-ray structures, however, the SRD is not resolved and assumed to be disordered. Here, we combined secondary structure annotation and domain threading followed by long molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and showed that the SRD possesses well-defined secondary structure elements. We show that the SRD contains 3 additional stable α-helices supplementing the six ARDs present in crystallized IκBα. The IκBα/NF-κB protein-protein complex remained intact and stable during the entire simulations. Also in solution, free IκBα retains its structural integrity. Differences in structural topology and dynamics were observed by comparing the structures of NF-κB free and NF-κB bound IκBα-complex. This study paves the way for investigating the signaling properties of the SRD in the IκBα degron. A detailed atomic scale understanding of molecular mechanism of NF-κB activation, regulation and the protein-protein interactions may assist to design and develop novel chronic inflammation modulators.

Ligand binding properties of human galanin receptors.

The galanin receptor family comprises of three members, GalR1, GalR2 and GalR3, all belonging to the G-protein-couple receptor superfamily. All three receptors bind the peptide hormone galanin, but show distinctly different binding properties to other molecules and effects on intracellular signaling. To gain insight on the molecular basis of receptor subtype specificity, we have generated a three-dimensional model for each of the galanin receptors based on its homologs in the same family. We found significant differences in the organization of the binding pockets among the three types of receptors, which might be the key for specific molecular recognition of ligands. Through docking of fragments of the galanin peptide and a number of ligands, we investigated the involvement of transmembrane and loop residues in ligand interaction.

Determining receptor-ligand interaction of human galanin receptor type 3.

Galanin is a neuropeptide found throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems of a wide range of species, ranging from human and mouse to frog and tuna. Galanin mediates its physiological roles through three receptors (GalR1-3), all members of the G-protein coupled receptor family. In mapping these roles, receptor subtype selective ligands are crucial tools. To facilitate the ligand design, data on receptor structure and interaction points are of great importance. The current study investigates the mechanism by which galanin interacts with GalR3. Mutated receptors were tested with competitive binding analysis in vitro. Our studies identify six mutagenic constructs that lost receptor affinity completely, despite being expressed at the cell surface. Mutations of the Tyr103(3.33) in transmembrane helix (TM) III, His251(6.51) in TM VI, Arg273(7.35) or His277(7.39) in TM VII, Phe263(6.63) or Tyr270(7.32) in the extracellular loop III all result in complete reduction of ligand binding. In addition, docking studies of an in silico model of GalR3 propose that four of the identified residues interact with pharmacophores situated within the galanin(2-6) sequence. This study provides novel insights into the interaction between ligands and GalR3 and highlights the requirement for correct design of targeting ligands.