The influence of socio-economic status on child temperament and psychological symptom profiles.

The influence of socio-economic status (SES) on child temperament and psychological symptoms was examined using a nationally representative sample in Singapore. Data were available for 2169 children from 1987 families. Caregivers' reports were obtained on children aged 4-6. SES was operationalized as an aggregation of household income per capita, parental education level and housing type. Compared to their counterparts from higher SES families, children from low-SES families tended to exhibit (a) higher negative affectivity but lower effortful control, and (b) higher internalizing and externalizing symptoms. In addition, children with a 'resilient' temperamental profile (i.e. low negative affectivity and high effortful control) were more likely to come from families with much higher SES, relative to children with other profiles. Children with high internalizing symptoms tended to come from low-SES backgrounds, regardless of their externalizing symptoms. Among children with low internalizing symptoms, those with high externalizing symptoms came from lower SES backgrounds compared to those with low externalizing symptoms. Parental warmth and distress mediated the association between SES and child temperament and symptom profiles, with the exception of distress in the SES-temperament link. These findings supported the family stress model and highlighted the novel perspective of SES's influence on configurations of child temperament and symptom characteristics.

Data on Singapore longitudinal early development study (SG-LEADS).

The Singapore Longitudinal Early Development Study (SG-LEADS) seeks to understand factors that can enhance or hinder Singaporean children's early childhood development with an aim to inform public policies that can help each child reach his or her potential. SG-LEADS is a nationally representative household survey that focuses on Singaporean households with children aged 0-6 at the baseline. It adopts a multi-stage probability sampling - clustered and stratified sampling strategy - with an oversample of the low-income households residing in 1-3-room HDB (Housing Development Board) public housing units. In-home face-to-face interviews were conducted on the computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) systems. The baseline survey was conducted between 2018 and 2019. Up to two eligible children and their primary caregivers were interviewed in each household. In total, 5,005 Singaporean children aged 0-6 in 3,476 households and their primary caregivers were successfully interviewed. In 2021, 4,351 children in 3,017 households were successfully re-interviewed. The contents of SG-LEADS are designed based on theories in multiple disciplines including sociology, psychology and economics about how multiple contexts (home, out-of-home care institution, community and state) interact to shape the multiple domains of child development. The survey includes assessments of children's motor, social-emotional well-being, language and cognitive skills, and biometric measures. Rich data about the family's socioeconomic, demographic and cultural backgrounds, family structure, family relations, home environment, social support, food security, financial distress, public program participation, and neighborhood characteristics and cohesion were collected. Comprehensive information was obtained about the target child's early childcare and preschool arrangements, children's time use (through time diaries), technology use, enhancement activities, nutrition intake and more. Primary caregivers' social-emotional well-being, cognitive skills, and parenting behavior were also assessed. In Wave 2, a special module about the family's COVID-19 experiences and responses was added. Descriptive statistics were presented on the study website. Multivariate analyses were conducted based on the SG-LEADS dataset with a variety of robust methodologies such as structural equation modeling, fixed effect analysis, lagged dependent variable model, hierarchical regression analyses, mediation analysis, propensity score matching, and so forth. Thus far, 14 journal articles have been published with a dozen or so papers under review. These analyses cover a wide range of topics, including but not limited to, 1) the impact of socioeconomic status on children's development such as infants' vocabulary, children's academic achievement and socio-emotional development, 2) the impact of paternity leave-taking on child outcome (3) how food insecurity affects children's behavior, (4) family experiences and resilience during COVID-19, (6) childcare arrangements and children's behavior and cognitive development, (6) children's ability to delay gratification in early childhood, (7) children in cross-national families, 8) children's time use, (9) family and community social capital and child development. The rich data in this longitudinal study provide many opportunities to research a wide range of topics related to early child development in an Asian context. This dataset holds tremendous potential to uncover valuable insights and inform evidence-based policy interventions to support optimal early childhood development. International comparative studies can also be conducted with similar surveys conducted in other countries.

How food insecurity affects children's behavior problems in early childhood: The nutrition and family stress pathways.

This study examines how household food insecurity shapes young children's behavior problems in Singapore. The analysis is based on two waves of data collected before and during COVID-19 from a nationally representative sample of 2,601 children in the Singapore Longitudinal Early Development Study (SG-LEADS, Mage = 4.5 at wave 1, Mage = 6 at wave 2). Results based on propensity score matching, fixed effects analysis and lagged-variable models show a positive association between household food insecurity and children's behavior problems both concurrently and over a two-year period. Two mediating pathways of this association are identified-children's dietary intake and family stress. Children in food-insecure households tend to consume fewer vegetables and more sugar-sweetened beverages and carbohydrates, which is associated with elevated behavior problems. Parents in food-insecure households exhibit greater emotional distress, diminished parental warmth, and increased punitive parenting practices, also contributing to their children's behavior problems. The family stress pathway has a stronger explanatory power than the nutrition pathway on children's behavior problems. This study reveals that food insecurity is a risk factor for children's behavior problems in early childhood which can lead to later developmental vulnerabilities for children in financially deprived families.

Pre-pandemic family resources and child self-regulation in children's internalizing problems during COVID-19: a multi-level social-ecological framework for emotional resilience.

Introduction: Children's psychological adjustment to adverse events can be determined by multiple risk and resilience factors. This study explored multi-level protective factors against children's internalizing problems and investigated the mechanism regarding how diverse environmental and child-level resources influence children's mental health in the context of COVID-19. Methods: Our participants included a nationally representative sample of 2,619 young children (48.3% girls) and their primary caregivers (95.1% mothers) in Singapore. They were a subset of the participants in the Singapore Longitudinal Early Development Study (SG LEADS). Data were collected over two waves-before the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic (Wave 1) when these children aged 3 to 6, and during the second year of the pandemic (Wave 2). Primary caregivers completed measures of verbal cognitive ability, self-control, economic stress, and positive and negative parental control in Wave 1. Children's self-regulation was assessed by the Delay of Gratification task in Wave 1, and their internalizing problems were rated by their primary caregivers in both waves. Other pre-pandemic family and community characteristics were collected as covariates. Structural equation modeling was performed. Results: Pre-pandemic parental resources (i.e., verbal cognitive ability, self-control, and low economic stress) predicted children's fewer internalizing problems during the pandemic and less aggravation of internalizing problems from before to during the pandemic, through more positive parental control (i.e., limit setting) and less negative parental control (i.e., harsh discipline). Moreover, children's self-regulation during early childhood was predicted by their primary caregivers' verbal cognitive ability and self-control, as well as positive parental control. Early childhood self-regulation further alleviated the aggravation of internalizing problems over time. Among the covariates, parental education, family income, parental psychological well-being, living with both parents, having a live-in domestic helper, and neighborhood quality also longitudinally predicted fewer child internalizing problems. Discussion: Our findings underscore the importance of nurturing children's emotional resilience under adverse and uncertain circumstances by boosting protective factors in their social-ecological system, including community-, family-, parent-, and child-level resources.

The influence of socioeconomic status and appearance-reality understanding on pre-schoolers' sharing and generosity.

Prosocial behaviour can be defined as any voluntary action that is performed to benefit another individual. Despite accumulating evidence of the importance of environmental variables (e.g., socioeconomic status; SES), and individual characteristics (e.g., theory of mind - ToM - skills), in influencing prosocial behaviours in young children, it is unknown how these factors relate to the underlying motivations for prosocial behaviours. Accordingly, both extrinsically (sharing) and intrinsically (generosity)-guided prosocial behaviours are measured in this study. We explore the influences of SES and ToM skills on young children's sharing behaviour and generosity, while controlling their age, working memory and language skills. Sixty-six 4- to 6 year olds (Mage = 5.24 years, SD = 0.73) from diverse SES (measured by parental education level) and ethnic backgrounds in Singapore completed tasks assessing the ToM measures of false belief and appearance-reality understanding, working memory, language skills, generosity, and sharing behaviour. The results of hierarchical regression analyses demonstrate that the father's education level and children's appearance-reality understanding were significant predictors of sharing, after controlling for age, working memory, language skills, and the mother's education level. Children's appearance-reality understanding was the sole predictor of children's generosity. Our findings highlight the impact of children's ability to hold different views of reality and their family's education levels on the development of sharing and generosity in early childhood.

Are centenarians successful agers? Evidence from China.

BACKGROUND: It is unclear to what degree centenarians are successful agers. We assess successful aging (SA) and its subtypes in a large Chinese sample. METHODS: Based on a large national sample of 18,311 Chinese centenarians, we first estimated the prevalence of SA among centenarians, and then used the Latent Class Analysis to classify centenarians into different types based on the five dimensions of SA. Multinomial regression analysis was used to examine how demographic, socioeconomic, and lifestyle covariates are associated with these identified types. RESULTS: 5.7% of centenarians fulfilled all five criteria of SA, and 1.3% failed all five criteria. The remainder could be classified into six types of SA. The regression analysis further revealed that these SA types were related to various social factors. For example, with timely access to medical care, centenarians were three times more likely to be successful agers. CONCLUSIONS: Centenarians demonstrate substantial heterogeneity in terms of achieving five SA criteria. Social factors are found to be significantly associated with centenarians' aging performances. Specific subtypes of SA among centenarians may be associated with and help explore different underlying biological-environmental mechanisms of exceptional longevity.

Effects of socio-economic status on infant native and non-native phoneme discrimination.

Infants undergo fundamental shifts in perception that are reported to be critical for language acquisition. In particular, infants' perception of native and non-native sounds begins to align with the properties of their native sound system. Thus far, empirical evidence for this transition - perceptual narrowing - has drawn from socio-economically and linguistically narrow populations from limited world regions. In this study, infants were sampled across diverse socio-economic strata and linguistic development in Singapore. One hundred and 16 infants were tested on their ability to discriminate both a native phonetic contrast (/ba/ versus /da/) and a non-native Hindi contrast (/ta/ versus /ʈa). Infants ranged in age from 6 to 12 months. Associations between age and discrimination varied by contrast type. Results demonstrated that infants' native sensitivities were positively predicted by family SES, whereas non-native sensitivities were not. Maternal socio-economic factors uniquely predicted native language sensitivity. Findings suggest that infants' sensitivity to native sound contrasts is influenced by their family socio-economic status. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: We investigated effects of socio-economic status on infant speech perception. Infants were tested on native and non-native speech discrimination. Socio-economic status predicted native speech discrimination. Maternal occupation was a key predictor of native speech discrimination.

The home literacy environment mediates effects of socio-economic status on infant vocabulary development.

It is well attested that high socio-economic status (SES) is associated with larger vocabulary size estimates in young children. This has led to growing interest in identifying associations and mechanisms that may contribute to this relationship. In this study, parent-child reading behaviors were investigated in relation to vocabulary size in a large-scale study of linguistically and socio-economically diverse families. This study sampled 902 infants in Singapore, a multilingual society. Both single-language (dominant and non-dominant) and dual-language vocabulary size estimates were obtained and related to family SES, demographic details, and home literacy activities. Results demonstrated that both single-language (dominant and non-dominant) and dual-language infant vocabulary size estimates were predicted by parental education levels. Further analyses revealed that parent-child book reading activities mediated the relationship between parental education and infant vocabulary size. Findings suggest that shared book reading may narrow effects of socio-economic disparities on early language development. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Socio-economic status (SES) was examined in relation to infant vocabulary size in a linguistically and socio-economically diverse setting. Mediating effects of the home literacy environment on infant vocabulary size were measured. Socio-economic factors, notably parental education, had both direct and indirect effects on vocabulary size. The home literacy environment mediated effects of SES on infant vocabulary size.

Cohort matters: The relationships between living arrangements and psychological health from the Korean Longitudinal Study of Aging (KLoSA).

BACKGROUND: Little is known about cohort variations in the relationships between living arrangements and psychological health among older adults. The current study evaluated whether cohort differences in the intergenerational support affect the differences in the mental health benefits of multigenerational living arrangements, and how they do so. METHODS: Using panel regression models with lagged variables based on South Korean data, we compared the shape of the relationships between living arrangements and psychological conditions of two cohorts of older adults. RESULTS: The study found birth cohort differences in older adults' psychological well-being. Among older adults in recent cohorts, living in a multigenerational household was positively associated with depression and negatively linked with life satisfaction. The cohort variations were partly explained by children's marital status and home ownership. CONCLUSION: The birth cohort variations in psychological health implications of living arrangements may reflect the changing patterns of intergenerational support and family values.

The Country That Never Retires: The Gendered Pathways to Retirement in South Korea.

OBJECTIVES: Among all Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countries, South Korean older adults work until the latest age. We investigate the extent to which work experiences over the life course and family circumstances can be associated with older workers' incentives to remain in the labor force beyond the statutory pension age. We explore gender-specific patterns of labor force exit and labor force re-entry in later life. METHODS: Using panel data of South Korean older workers and retirees from 2006 to 2016, we estimate multilevel discrete-time models with random effects to predict their labor force transition process that unfolds over time. RESULTS: Results show that skilled manual workers are less likely to exit employment and more likely to re-enter the labor force. A longer history of self-employment is related to later retirement. The relationship between career characteristics and the risk of retirement is only significant for men. Late-aged employment transition among women appears to be more related to family conditions. Women who receive financial support from adult offspring are more likely to remain out of the labor force but this relationship is not pronounced among men. DISCUSSION: Policies aimed at extending working lives need to provide various types of social support to older job seekers, especially those who had low-class jobs and those without family networks.

Parental Migration and Children's Psychological and Cognitive Development in China: Differences and Mediating Mechanisms.

Internal migration has resulted in a large number of left-behind children in China. Despite growing attention to this population, important gaps remain in our understanding of their cognitive development and the factors that mediate the impact of migration on children. The present study draws on a new nationally representative survey of Chinese children to study the psychological and cognitive development of left-behind children. Results show that rural children left behind by both parents (but not by one parent) are worse off in both psychological well-being and cognitive development than rural children living with both parents. The disadvantage of left-behind children is mediated by their caregivers' emotional well-being, parenting practices, and education. We also find a pronounced rural-urban difference in children's cognitive development.

Age of Retirement and Human Capital in an Aging China, 2015-2050.

As China continues to age rapidly, whether the country should adjust the official retirement age, and if so, when and how, are currently major policy concerns. We examine the impact of postponing the retirement age on the human capital of China in the next four decades. Two critical aspects of human capital-health and education-are incorporated to account for the quality of the work force. Our projections reveal the impact of nine scenarios on the Chinese labor force in the next few decades, highlighting the changes in "the high human capital workforce"-those with good health and education. We show substantial impact with added work force ranging from 28 to 92 million per year depending on which scenarios are implemented. Furthermore, the retained workers are increasingly better educated. The gain in female workers is particularly significant, reaping the benefits of the education expansion since the 1990s.

Reciprocal Dynamics of Solo-Living and Health Among Older Adults in Contemporary China.

OBJECTIVES: Solo-living has far-reaching implications for older adults' well-being. The causal impacts and the pathways of solo-living on health and well-being of older adults are still unclear. This study examines the correlates of solo-living and subsequent health outcomes of solo-living among older adults in mainland China. METHODS: We draw data from four waves of a nationwide survey with a total of 9,714 older adults aged 65 or older who had at least three interviews in 2005-2014. A generalized structural equation modeling approach was applied to examine what factors are associated with solo-living status and whether and how the antecedent of solo-living status subsequently affects well-being and health. RESULTS: Owning a home, having no living child, and a preference to live independently are positively correlated with living alone, whereas living in a city, having economic independence, being educated, and having poor physical and cognitive functions are associated with lower odds of solo-living. Older Chinese adults who live alone are more likely to feel lonely and have a lower life satisfaction, yet they are more likely to be involved in social/leisure activities, and have fewer physical disabilities and a lower mortality risk. DISCUSSION: There is a bi-directional relationship between solo-living and well-being/health among the Chinese older adults. Solo-living is a conditioned choice of a set of critical factors among older Chinese. The greater involvement in social/leisure activities is likely a key for Chinese solo-living older adults to mitigate the negative impact of their lower psychological well-being on subsequent mortality.

Childhood conditions and productive aging in China.

We investigate the impacts of childhood conditions on productive aging in China. Productive aging is defined as engagement in working, caring, and socially productive activities (volunteering, informal helping, etc.). Two theoretical frameworks are examined: (1) the pathway model that emphasizes later life health and socioeconomic conditions are related to dis(advantages) starting from childhood, and (2) the latency model that illustrates childhood experiences directly affect productive engagement due to biomedical influences or values and preferences formed during childhood. The 2011, 2013 and 2014 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Studies (CHARLS) were used as these data sets provide both contemporaneous and retrospective information. The analytic sample consists of 5818 respondents aged 55 and above. We conduct multilevel analyses and path models to estimate the effects of childhood conditions, including family background (hukou - household registration - status and parents' education), neighborhood cohesion, subjective health and nutrition. Individual and family contemporaneous characteristics and clustered data structure were controlled for. The results largely support a pathway model in that childhood health and nutrition affect the likelihood of productive activities in later life through their influence on cognition and disabilities in old age. Moreover, family background and neighborhood cohesion are associated with productive activities via the effects through mid-life work, later life cognition, and disabilities. Results also provide some support for the latency model through the direct effect of neighborhood cohesion on socially productive activities, highlighting the importance of values formed in early life in shaping the motivations of productive engagement in later life. To conclude, we demonstrate that better childhood health, an advantaged family background, and values of helping others instilled in childhood affect older adults' productive engagement. Policies should be put in place to reduce socioeconomic disadvantages in childhood and also to cultivate cohesive community environments.

Long-Term Care for Older Adults in ASEAN Plus Three: The Roles of Family, Community, and the State in Addressing Unmet Eldercare Needs.

OBJECTIVE: To introduce this Special Issue that focuses on understanding the issues surrounding the long-term care (LTC) in selected societies in Southeast and East Asian countries. METHOD: We first provide demographic and socioeconomic context for these countries and then summarize the seven articles in this issue. RESULTS: The articles highlight the rapidly rising demand for LTC in this region in the next few decades given the declining fertility, lengthening life expectancy, and increasing migration. They also discuss challenges and strategies in meeting these demands. Most countries are ill prepared to cope with the demand for LTC with older adults heavily rely upon female family members for care. Elderly women in low-income households have the greatest unmet need. DISCUSSION: Home-based and community-based services are set to become an integral part of the LTC system. It is important to incorporate older adults' cultural norms and wishes in their care plan and provision.

Social exclusion and cognitive impairment - A triple jeopardy for Chinese rural elderly women.

This study investigates how social exclusion, defined as a multidimensional concept encompassing financial deprivation, social isolation, and a lack of basic social rights, is associated with cognitive impairment of elderly Chinese. Using three waves of the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (N = 10,923), we find that rural elderly women are the most vulnerable to social exclusion (17.28%) and cognitive impairment (18.52%) among the Chinese elderly. After addressing the methodological challenges of endogeneity and sample attrition due to mortality, and holding an array of demographic, lifestyle, and health variables constant, we find that social exclusion is significantly associated with higher risks of cognitive impairment. Rural elderly women suffering from severe or extreme social exclusion are 23 times more likely to be cognitively impaired as compared to their urban male counterparts who are not socially excluded. Lack of participation in social activity is the most common risk factor associated with cognitive impairment across groups, after controlling for relevant covariates.

An Ecological Framework for Active Aging in China.

OBJECTIVES: Against the background of emerging research interest in integrating Active Aging in long-term care policies, the study investigates the relationships between community environment and engagement in social activities (paid work, domestic care, participation in community and leisure activities) by older Chinese adults. Six indicators are derived from the economic, institutional, and sociodemographic environments of the communities under analysis. METHOD: The first wave of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) is used for empirical examinations. The sample includes respondents aged 50 years and above ( n = 6,290) from 307 communities. Random-intercept multilevel logistic models are employed. RESULTS: Economic environment is positively linked to engagement in paid work and grandparental childcare, community activities, and leisure activities. However, the effects decreased after including the indicators for the institutional and sociodemographic environments. We found that older adults are more likely to engage in community activities and leisure activities in communities and with a higher percentage of migrant population. DISCUSSION: To integrate Active Aging in the current long-term care policies in China, the study points out that residential community environment is crucial for older Chinese to enhance and sustain their involvement in family and communities before older adults rely on long-term care facilities. In particular, the relevance of institutional and sociodemographic environment provides policy makers to rethink about how to provide community-based long-term care.