Regulation of inflammatory diseases via the control of mRNA decay.

Inflammation orchestrates a finely balanced process crucial for microorganism elimination and tissue injury protection. A multitude of immune and non-immune cells, alongside various proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, collectively regulate this response. Central to this regulation is post-transcriptional control, governing gene expression at the mRNA level. RNA-binding proteins such as tristetraprolin, Roquin, and the Regnase family, along with RNA modifications, intricately dictate the mRNA decay of pivotal mediators and regulators in the inflammatory response. Dysregulated activity of these factors has been implicated in numerous human inflammatory diseases, underscoring the significance of post-transcriptional regulation. The increasing focus on targeting these mechanisms presents a promising therapeutic strategy for inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. This review offers an extensive overview of post-transcriptional regulation mechanisms during inflammatory responses, delving into recent advancements, their implications in human diseases, and the strides made in therapeutic exploitation.

RNA Metabolism Governs Immune Function and Response.

Inflammation is a complex process that protects our body from various insults such as infection, injury, and stress. Proper inflammation is beneficial to eliminate the insults and maintain organ homeostasis, however, it can become detrimental if uncontrolled. To tightly regulate inflammation, post-transcriptional mechanisms governing RNA metabolism play a crucial role in monitoring the expression of immune-related genes, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). These mechanisms involve the coordinated action of various RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), including the Regnase family, Roquin, and RNA methyltransferases, which are responsible for mRNA decay and/or translation regulation. The collaborative efforts of these RBPs are essential in preventing aberrant immune response activation and consequently safeguarding against inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. This review provides an overview of recent advancements in our understanding of post-transcriptional regulation within the immune system and explores the specific roles of individual RBPs in RNA metabolism and regulation.

The N6-methyladenosine methyltransferase METTL16 enables erythropoiesis through safeguarding genome integrity.

During erythroid differentiation, the maintenance of genome integrity is key for the success of multiple rounds of cell division. However, molecular mechanisms coordinating the expression of DNA repair machinery in erythroid progenitors are poorly understood. Here, we discover that an RNA N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methyltransferase, METTL16, plays an essential role in proper erythropoiesis by safeguarding genome integrity via the control of DNA-repair-related genes. METTL16-deficient erythroblasts exhibit defective differentiation capacity, DNA damage and activation of the apoptotic program. Mechanistically, METTL16 controls m6A deposition at the structured motifs in DNA-repair-related transcripts including Brca2 and Fancm mRNAs, thereby upregulating their expression. Furthermore, a pairwise CRISPRi screen revealed that the MTR4-nuclear RNA exosome complex is involved in the regulation of METTL16 substrate mRNAs in erythroblasts. Collectively, our study uncovers that METTL16 and the MTR4-nuclear RNA exosome act as essential regulatory machinery to maintain genome integrity and erythropoiesis.

Regnase-1 Prevents Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Through mRNA Degradation of Interleukin-6 and Platelet-Derived Growth Factor in Alveolar Macrophages.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a type of pulmonary hypertension (PH) characterized by obliterative pulmonary vascular remodeling, resulting in right-sided heart failure. Although the pathogenesis of PAH is not fully understood, inflammatory responses and cytokines have been shown to be associated with PAH, in particular, with connective tissue disease-PAH. In this sense, Regnase-1, an RNase that regulates mRNAs encoding genes related to immune reactions, was investigated in relation to the pathogenesis of PH. METHODS: We first examined the expression levels of ZC3H12A (encoding Regnase-1) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with PH classified under various types of PH, searching for an association between the ZC3H12A expression and clinical features. We then generated mice lacking Regnase-1 in myeloid cells, including alveolar macrophages, and examined right ventricular systolic pressures and histological changes in the lung. We further performed a comprehensive analysis of the transcriptome of alveolar macrophages and pulmonary arteries to identify genes regulated by Regnase-1 in alveolar macrophages. RESULTS: ZC3H12A expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells was inversely correlated with the prognosis and severity of disease in patients with PH, in particular, in connective tissue disease-PAH. The critical role of Regnase-1 in controlling PAH was also reinforced by the analysis of mice lacking Regnase-1 in alveolar macrophages. These mice spontaneously developed severe PAH, characterized by the elevated right ventricular systolic pressures and irreversible pulmonary vascular remodeling, which recapitulated the pathology of patients with PAH. Transcriptomic analysis of alveolar macrophages and pulmonary arteries of these PAH mice revealed that Il6, Il1b, and Pdgfa/b are potential targets of Regnase-1 in alveolar macrophages in the regulation of PAH. The inhibition of IL-6 (interleukin-6) by an anti-IL-6 receptor antibody or platelet-derived growth factor by imatinib but not IL-1ß (interleukin-1ß) by anakinra, ameliorated the pathogenesis of PAH. CONCLUSIONS: Regnase-1 maintains lung innate immune homeostasis through the control of IL-6 and platelet-derived growth factor in alveolar macrophages, thereby suppressing the development of PAH in mice. Furthermore, the decreased expression of Regnase-1 in various types of PH implies its involvement in PH pathogenesis and may serve as a disease biomarker, and a therapeutic target for PH as well.

Enhancement of Regnase-1 expression with stem loop-targeting antisense oligonucleotides alleviates inflammatory diseases.

Regnase-1 is an ribonuclease that plays essential roles in restricting inflammation through degrading messenger RNAs (mRNAs) involved in immune reactions via the recognition of stem-loop (SL) structures in the 3' untranslated regions (3'UTRs). Dysregulated expression of Regnase-1 is associated with the pathogenesis of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases in mice and humans. Here, we developed a therapeutic strategy to suppress inflammatory responses by blocking Regnase-1 self-regulation, which was mediated by the simultaneous use of two antisense phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligonucleotides (MOs) to alter the binding of Regnase-1 toward the SL structures in its 3'UTR. Regnase-1-targeting MOs not only enhanced Regnase-1 expression by stabilizing mRNAs but also effectively reduced the expression of multiple proinflammatory transcripts that were controlled by Regnase-1 in macrophages. Intratracheal administration of Regnase-1-targeting MOs ameliorated acute respiratory distress syndrome and chronic fibrosis through suppression of inflammatory cascades. In addition, intracranial treatment with Regnase-1-targeting MOs attenuated the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by promoting the expansion of homeostatic microglia and regulatory T cell populations. Regnase-1 expression was inversely correlated with disease severity in patients with multiple sclerosis, and MOs targeting human Regnase-1 SL structures were effective in mitigating cytokine production in human immune cells. Collectively, MO-mediated disruption of the Regnase-1 self-regulation pathway is a potential therapeutic strategy to enhance Regnase-1 abundance, which, in turn, provides therapeutic benefits for treating inflammatory diseases by suppressing inflammation.

Cyclin J-CDK complexes limit innate immune responses by reducing proinflammatory changes in macrophage metabolism.

Toll-like receptor (TLR) stimulation induces glycolysis and the production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), both of which are critical for inflammatory responses in macrophages. Here, we demonstrated that cyclin J, a TLR-inducible member of the cyclin family, reduced cytokine production in macrophages by coordinately controlling glycolysis and mitochondrial functions. Cyclin J interacted with cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), which increased the phosphorylation of a subset of CDK substrates, including the transcription factor FoxK1 and the GTPase Drp1. Cyclin J-dependent phosphorylation of FoxK1 decreased the transcription of glycolytic genes and Hif-1α activation, whereas hyperactivation of Drp1 by cyclin J-dependent phosphorylation promoted mitochondrial fragmentation and impaired the production of mitochondrial ROS. In mice, cyclin J in macrophages limited the growth of tumor xenografts and protected against LPS-induced shock but increased the susceptibility to bacterial infection. Collectively, our findings indicate that cyclin J-CDK signaling promotes antitumor immunity and the resolution of inflammation by opposing the metabolic changes that drive inflammatory responses in macrophages.

TANK prevents IFN-dependent fatal diffuse alveolar hemorrhage by suppressing DNA-cGAS aggregation.

Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage (DAH) is one of the serious complications associated with systemic lupus erythematosus, an autoimmune disease whose pathogenesis involves type I IFNs and cytokines. Here, we show that TANK, a negative regulator of the NF-κB signaling via suppression of TRAF6 ubiquitination, is critical for the amelioration of fatal DAH caused by lung vascular endothelial cell death in a mouse model of systemic lupus erythematosus. The development of fatal DAH in the absence of TANK is mediated by type I IFN signaling, but not IL-6. We further uncover that STING, an adaptor essential for the signaling of cytoplasmic DNA sensor cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP) synthase (cGAS), plays a critical role in DAH under Tank deficiency. TANK controls cGAS-mediated cGAMP production and suppresses DNA-mediated induction of IFN-stimulated genes in macrophages by inhibiting the formation of DNA-cGAS aggregates containing ubiquitin. Collectively, TANK inhibits the cGAS-dependent recognition of cytoplasmic DNA to prevent fatal DAH in the murine lupus model.

Profibrotic function of pulmonary group 2 innate lymphoid cells is controlled by regnase-1.

Regnase-1 is an RNase critical for post-transcriptional control of pulmonary immune homeostasis in mice by degrading immune-related mRNAs. However, little is known about the cell types Regnase-1 controls in the lung, and its relevance to human pulmonary diseases.Regnase-1-dependent changes in lung immune cell types were examined by a competitive bone marrow transfer mouse model, and group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) were identified. Then the associations between Regnase-1 in ILC2s and human diseases were investigated by transcriptome analysis and a bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis mouse model. The clinical significance of Regnase-1 in ILC2s was further assessed using patient-derived cells.Regnase-1-deficiency resulted in the spontaneous proliferation and activation of ILC2s in the lung. Intriguingly, genes associated with pulmonary fibrosis were highly upregulated in Regnase-1-deficient ILC2s compared with wild-type, and supplementation of Regnase-1-deficient ILC2s augmented bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. Regnase-1 suppresses mRNAs encoding transcription factors Gata3 and Egr1, which are potent to regulate fibrosis-associated genes. Clinically, Regnase-1 protein levels in ILC2 negatively correlated with the ILC2 population in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Furthermore, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) patients with ILC2s >1500 cells·mL-1 peripheral blood exhibited poorer prognosis than patients with lower numbers, implying the contribution of Regnase-1 in ILC2s for the progression of IPF.Collectively, Regnase-1 was identified as a critical post-transcriptional regulator of the profibrotic function of ILC2s both in mouse and human, suggesting that Regnase-1 may be a novel therapeutic target for IPF.

Codon bias confers stability to human mRNAs.

Codon bias has been implicated as one of the major factors contributing to mRNA stability in several model organisms. However, the molecular mechanisms of codon bias on mRNA stability remain unclear in humans. Here, we show that human cells possess a mechanism to modulate RNA stability through a unique codon bias. Bioinformatics analysis showed that codons could be clustered into two distinct groups-codons with G or C at the third base position (GC3) and codons with either A or T at the third base position (AT3): the former stabilizing while the latter destabilizing mRNA. Quantification of codon bias showed that increased GC3-content entails proportionately higher GC-content. Through bioinformatics, ribosome profiling, and in vitro analysis, we show that decoupling the effects of codon bias reveals two modes of mRNA regulation, one GC3- and one GC-content dependent. Employing an immunoprecipitation-based strategy, we identify ILF2 and ILF3 as RNA-binding proteins that differentially regulate global mRNA abundances based on codon bias. Our results demonstrate that codon bias is a two-pronged system that governs mRNA abundance.

RNA binding proteins in the control of autoimmune diseases.

Autoimmune disease is induced by the breakdown of immune tolerance to self-antigens. This is brought about by an imbalance between the activation and the repression of immune responses. Dysregulation of the immune response is driven by the excess of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF, which play a central role in the pathogenesis of a set of autoimmune diseases. The expression of proinflammatory mediator genes is tightly controlled by post-transcriptional regulation, which is mediated by a set of immune-related RNA binding proteins, such as tristetraprolin, Roquin, and Regnase-1. These proteins coordinately control the stability of proinflammatory mRNAs to regulate aberrant immune reactions. In this review, we discuss the roles of RNA binding proteins which are associated with the immune regulation and autoimmune pathogenesis.

Post-transcriptional control of immune responses and its potential application.

Inflammation is the host response against stresses such as infection. Although the inflammation process is required for the elimination of pathogens, uncontrolled inflammation leads to tissue destruction and inflammatory diseases. To avoid this, the inflammatory response is tightly controlled by multiple layers of regulation. Post-transcriptional control of inflammatory mRNAs is increasingly understood to perform critical roles in this process. This is mediated primarily by a set of RNA binding proteins (RBPs) including tristetraprolin, Roquin and Regnase-1, and RNA methylases. These key regulators coordinate the inflammatory response by modulating mRNA pools in both immune and local nonimmune cells. In this review, we provide an overview of the post-transcriptional coordination of immune responses in various tissues and discuss how RBP-mediated regulation of inflammation may be harnessed as a potential class of treatments for inflammatory diseases.

Pulmonary Regnase-1 orchestrates the interplay of epithelium and adaptive immune systems to protect against pneumonia.

Inhaled pathogens including Pseudomonas aeruginosa initially encounter airway epithelial cells (AECs), which are poised to evoke cell-intrinsic innate defense, affecting second tier of hematopoietic cell-mediated immune reaction. However, it is largely unknown how pulmonary immune responses mediated by a variety of immune cells are coordinated. Here we show that Regnase-1, an endoribonuclease expressed in AECs and immune cells, plays an essential role in coordinating innate responses and adaptive immunity against P. aeruginosa infection. Intratracheal treatment of mice with heat-killed P. aeruginosa resulted in prolonged disappearance of Regnase-1 consistent with sustained expression of Regnase-1 target inflammatory genes, whereas the transcription factor NF-κB was only transiently activated. AEC-specific deletion of Regnase-1 not only augmented innate defenses against P. aeruginosa but also enhanced secretion of Pseudomonas-specific IgA and Th17 accumulation in the lung, culminating in conferring significant resistance against P. aeruginosa re-infection in vivo. Although Regnase-1 directly controls distinct sets of genes in each of AECs and T cells, degradation of Regnase-1 in both cell types is beneficial for maximizing acquired immune responses. Collectively, these results demonstrate that Regnase-1 orchestrates AEC-mediated and immune cell-mediated host defense against pulmonary bacterial infection.

Regnase-1 and Roquin Nonredundantly Regulate Th1 Differentiation Causing Cardiac Inflammation and Fibrosis.

Regnase-1 and Roquin are RNA binding proteins that are essential for degradation of inflammatory mRNAs and maintenance of immune homeostasis. Although deficiency of either of the proteins leads to enhanced T cell activation, their functional relationship in T cells has yet to be clarified because of lethality upon mutation of both Regnase-1 and Roquin. By using a Regnase-1 conditional allele, we show that mutations of both Regnase-1 and Roquin in T cells leads to massive lymphocyte activation. In contrast, mutation of either Regnase-1 or Roquin affected T cell activation to a lesser extent than the double mutation, indicating that Regnase-1 and Roquin function nonredundantly in T cells. Interestingly, Regnase-1 and Roquin double-mutant mice suffered from severe inflammation and early formation of fibrosis, especially in the heart, along with the increased expression of Ifng, but not Il4 or Il17a Consistently, mutation of both Regnase-1 and Roquin leads to a huge increase in the Th1, but not the Th2 or Th17, population in spleens compared with T cells with a single Regnase-1 or Roquin deficiency. Regnase-1 and Roquin are capable of repressing the expression of a group of mRNAs encoding factors involved in Th1 differentiation, such as Furin and Il12rb1, via their 3' untranslated regions. Moreover, Regnase-1 is capable of repressing Roquin mRNA. This cross-regulation may contribute to the synergistic control of T cell activation/polarization. Collectively, our results demonstrate that Regnase-1 and Roquin maintain T cell immune homeostasis and regulate Th1 polarization synergistically.

Regnase-1 Maintains Iron Homeostasis via the Degradation of Transferrin Receptor 1 and Prolyl-Hydroxylase-Domain-Containing Protein 3 mRNAs.

Iron metabolism is regulated by transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms. The mRNA of the iron-controlling gene, transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), has long been believed to be negatively regulated by a yet-unidentified endonuclease. Here, we show that the endonuclease Regnase-1 is critical for the degradation of mRNAs involved in iron metabolism in vivo. First, we demonstrate that Regnase-1 promotes TfR1 mRNA decay. Next, we show that Regnase-1-/- mice suffer from severe iron deficiency anemia, although hepcidin expression is downregulated. The iron deficiency anemia is induced by a defect in duodenal iron uptake. We reveal that duodenal Regnase-1 controls the expression of PHD3, which impairs duodenal iron uptake via HIF2α suppression. Finally, we show that Regnase-1 is a HIF2α-inducible gene and thus provides a positive feedback loop for HIF2α activation via PHD3. Collectively, these results demonstrate that Regnase-1-mediated regulation of iron-related transcripts is essential for the maintenance of iron homeostasis.

Moesin controls clathrin-mediated S1PR1 internalization in T cells.

The lipid mediator sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) regulates a wide range of cellular activities, including vascular maturation, angiogenesis, and immune-cell trafficking. Among the five known receptors for S1P (S1PR1-S1PR5), S1PR1 is a critical regulator of lymphocyte trafficking: its signaling is required for lymphocyte egress from lymphoid organs, while its down-modulation by agonist-induced internalization is a prerequisite for lymphocyte entry into lymphoid organs from the bloodstream. Despite the importance of S1PR1 down-regulation in determining lymphocyte behavior, the molecular mechanism of its internalization in lymphocytes has not been defined. Here we show that agonist-induced S1PR1 internalization in T cells occurs via clathrin-mediated endocytosis and is regulated by moesin, an ezrin-radixin-moesin (ERM) family member. In S1P-stimulated T cells, S1PR1 relocalized within clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs) and early endosomes, and S1PR1 internalization was blocked when clathrin was pharmacologically inhibited. Stimulating moesin-deficient T cells with S1P failed to induce S1PR1 internalization and CCV formation. Furthermore, treating moesin-deficient mice with FTY720, an S1P receptor agonist known to internalize S1PR1, caused delayed lymphopenia, and lymphocytes isolated from FTY720-treated moesin-deficient mice still responded to S1P ex vivo in chemotaxis assays. These results reveal a novel role for moesin in regulating clathrin-dependent S1PR1 internalization through CCV formation.