Plasmacytoid dendritic cell-derived IFNα modulates Th17 differentiation during early Bordetella pertussis infection in mice.

Whooping cough is a highly contagious respiratory disease caused by Bordetella pertussis (B. pertussis). T helper 17 (Th17) cells have a central role in the resolution of the infection. Emerging studies document that type I interferons (IFNs) suppress Th17 differentiation and interleukin (IL)-17 responses in models of infection and chronic inflammation. As plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are a major source of type I IFNs, we hypothesize that during B. pertussis infection in mice, pDC-derived IFNα inhibits a rapid increase in Th17 cells. We found that IFNα-secreting pDCs appear in the lungs during the early stages of infection, while a robust rise of Th17 cells in the lungs is detected at 15 days post-infection or later. The presence of IFNα led to reduced Th17 differentiation and proliferation in vitro. Furthermore, in vivo blocking of IFNα produced by pDCs during infection with B. pertussis infection resulted in early increase of Th17 frequency, inflammation, and reduced bacterial loads in the airways of infected mice. Taken together, the experiments reported here describe an inhibitory role for pDCs and pDC-derived IFNα in modulating Th17 responses during the early stages of B. pertussis infection, which may explain the prolonged nature of whooping cough.

6-C-kine (SLC), a lymphocyte adhesion-triggering chemokine expressed by high endothelium, is an agonist for the MIP-3beta receptor CCR7.

The beta chemokine known as 6-C-kine, secondary lymphoid-tissue chemokine (SLC), TCA4, or Exodus-2 (herein referred to as 6CK/SLC) can trigger rapid integrin-dependent arrest of lymphocytes rolling under physiological shear and is highly expressed by high endothelial venules, specialized vessels involved in lymphocyte homing from the blood into lymph nodes and Peyer's patches. We show that 6CK/SLC is an agonist for the lymphocyte chemoattractant receptor, CCR7 (EBI-1, BLR-2), previously described as a receptor for the related beta chemokine MIP-3beta (ELC or Exodus-3). Moreover, 6CK/SLC and MIP-3beta attract the same major populations of circulating lymphocytes, including naive and memory T cells > B cells (but not natural killer cells); desensitization to MIP-3beta inhibits lymphocyte chemotaxis to 6CK/SLC but not to the alpha chemokine SDF-1 (stromal cell-derived factor); and 6CK/SLC competes for MIP-3beta binding to resting mouse lymphocytes. The findings suggest that the majority of circulating lymphocytes respond to 6CK/SLC and MIP-3beta in large part through their common receptor CCR7 and that these molecules may be important mediators of physiological lymphocyte recirculation in vivo.

Transcriptional regulation of the human polymeric immunoglobulin receptor gene by interferon-gamma.

IgA is transported into external secretions by the polymeric Ig receptor (pIgR). Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), a major regulator of pIgR expression, has been shown to increase pIgR mRNA levels in HT-29 human colon carcinoma cells. To determine the molecular mechanisms of pIgR regulation, genomic DNA containing the 5'-flanking region of the human pIgR gene was isolated and a single start site of transcription in human intestinal epithelial cells was identified. Using chimeric reporter plasmids containing flanking regions of the pIgR gene, a segment of the pIgR promoter which is necessary and sufficient for induction of transcription by IFN-gamma in HT-29 cells was identified. Significantly, the pIgR promoter contains three motifs homologous to the interferon-stimulated response element (ISRE), two in the 5'-flanking region and one in exon 1 of the pIgR gene. The upstream ISREs bind nuclear protein(s) which are constitutively expressed by HT-29 cells, while the exon 1 ISRE binds interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1), following stimulation with IFN-gamma. Furthermore, induction of the IRF-1 promoter by IFN-gamma correlates with induction of the pIgR promoter by IFN-gamma. It has previously been demonstrated that induction of pIgR mRNA by IFN-gamma, requires de novo protein synthesis. It is now shown that IRF-1 is not detected in nuclear extracts from HT-29 cells stimulated with IFN-gamma in the presence of cycloheximide, suggesting that de novo synthesis of IRF-1 is required for induction of pIgR transcription by IFN-gamma.

Molecular cloning of the mouse polymeric Ig receptor. Functional regions of the molecule are conserved among five mammalian species.

Transcytosis of polymeric Ig (pIg) by mucosal epithelial cells is mediated by the polymeric Ig receptor (pIgR). Here we describe the characterization of a 3095-bp mouse pIgR cDNA, which encodes a protein of 771 amino acids. Northern blot analysis detected a single mouse pIgR transcript of 3.9 kb, expressed at high levels in small intestine and liver, and at low levels in lung. Alignment of the amino acid sequences of mouse, rat, human, bovine, and rabbit pIgR revealed that functional regions of the molecule are conserved across species. In the extracellular region, conserved motifs include: a 23-amino acid pIg-binding site, 11 intradomain disulfide bonds, consensus sites for N-glycosylation, and a putative cleavage site at which the extracellular region of pIgR (secretory component) is released from the plasma membrane. A 10-amino acid sequence within the transmembrane region is highly conserved, possibly reflecting a mechanism for transmitting signals from the extracellular region to the cytoplasmic tail. Conservation within the cytoplasmic tail of pIgR is clustered in motifs that mediate polarized sorting, endocytosis, and transcytosis.

Inhibition of IFN-gamma activity in supernatants from stimulated human intestinal mononuclear cells prevents up-regulation of the polymeric Ig receptor in an intestinal epithelial cell line.

The polymeric IgR (pIgR) mediates transcytosis of polymeric IgA across mucosal epithelia. Expression of this receptor in HT-29.74 human colon carcinoma cells is up-regulated by the recombinant cytokines IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, and IL-4. Here, we demonstrate that activation of freshly isolated human intestinal lamina propria mononuclear cells (LPMC) induces production of natural cytokines, and these act synergistically as potent stimulators of pIgR expression in HT-29.74 cells. LPMC from normal colonic mucosa were stimulated with PMA and calcium ionophore A-23187. The resulting supernatants consistently induced dose-dependent increases in pIgR expression by HT-29.74 cells, up to 65-fold. Analysis of four separate LPMC supernatants revealed mean concentrations of 8260 pg/ml for IFN-gamma, 420 pg/ml for TNF-alpha, and 15 pg/ml for IL-4. Ab-mediated neutralization of these cytokines suggested that the central regulator of pIgR expression in these supernatants was IFN-gamma. IL-4 neutralization had no effect on induction and TNF-alpha neutralization slightly reduced induction. In contrast, IFN-gamma neutralization abolished up to 93% of pIgR induction and had essentially the same effect as simultaneous neutralization of all three cytokines. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that natural cytokines, predominantly IFN-gamma, produced by stimulated human intestinal lymphocytes and macrophages have the capacity to up-regulate dramatically pIgR expression in an intestinal epithelial cell line, strongly suggesting that their action in vivo leads to enhancement of local defense functions mediated by IgA.

Localization of intestinal interleukin 1 activity and protein and gene expression to lamina propria cells.

BACKGROUND: Interleukin 1 (IL-1) is a key mediator of bowel inflammation, but there is limited knowledge about the amount and site of production of this cytokine in the gastrointestinal tract under physiological or pathological conditions. METHODS: Epithelial and lamina propria mononuclear cells were isolated from control, and Crohn's disease- and ulcerative colitis-involved mucosa to investigate the capacity of these cells to generate IL-1 bioactivity, IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta immunoreactivity, and gene expression. RESULTS: Control lamina propria mononuclear cells produced substantial amounts of IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta, which increased dramatically when inflammatory bowel disease cells were used. Epithelial cells from control, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis intestine displayed no IL-1 bioactivity or immunoreactivity. Lamina propria mononuclear cells contained moderate to large quantities of IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta messenger RNA (mRNA), respectively, whereas epithelial cells had none. The absence of IL-1 transcripts in epithelial cells was selective, because mRNA for HLA-DR antigens was present in control and inflammatory bowel disease cells. CONCLUSIONS: In normal and inflamed human intestine there is a distinct compartmentalization of IL-1, as mononuclear but not epithelial cells generate this cytokine. The high levels of IL-1 in inflammatory bowel disease may explain several of its local and systemic manifestations, and blockade by specific antagonists could have important therapeutic effects.

Immune activation genes in inflammatory bowel disease.

BACKGROUND: Inflammatory bowel disease is associated with enhanced activation of T cells, but the genes responsible for this state are not well characterized. METHODS: T-cell activation genes were studied in peripheral blood and intestinal mucosal mononuclear cells of control, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis patients. RESULTS: In all groups the expression of interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-2 receptor alpha (IL-2R alpha), and IL-2R beta messenger RNA (mRNA) was significantly higher in intestinal than circulating cells, and it correlated well with protein levels. Both IL-2R alpha and IL-2R beta mRNA were abundant in mucosal cells, suggesting that a substantial number of them displays high affinity IL-2R. This would explain why intestinal cells proliferate more, express more IL-2 transcripts, and secrete more IL-2 than peripheral cells. Inflammatory bowel disease cells produced similar or higher IL-2R alpha and IL-2R beta mRNA than controls but generated significantly lower IL-2 mRNA. Thus, the reported defect of IL-2 activity in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis is probably related to decreased IL-2 transcription. Crohn's disease intestinal cells had the highest expression of IL-2R gene products. This provides a mechanism for their increased response to IL-2 and supports claims that elevated soluble IL-2R alpha serum levels reflect gut T-cell hyperactivity in this disease. CONCLUSIONS: These findings underscore the importance of T cells in mucosal immunity and indicate that abnormal T-cell activation is intimately associated to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease.

Loss of interleukin-2-producing intestinal CD4+ T cells in inflammatory bowel disease.

Interleukin-2 activity of intestinal lamina propria mononuclear cells is decreased in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis patients compared with control patients with noninflammatory bowel disease. Factors that might be responsible for this phenomenon were investigated. Most interleukin-2 activity was produced by helper (CD4+) T cells. These were present in comparable numbers in both inflammatory bowel disease and control cultures, but the frequency of interleukin-2-producing cells was significantly (3-4 times) lower among Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis than control cells. In agreement with this finding, levels of interleukin-2 messenger RNA were substantially decreased in both forms of inflammatory bowel disease compared with controls. Mucosal CD8+ T cells and plastic-adherent cells were unable to suppress interleukin-2 activity by autologous or allogeneic CD4+ T cells. The rate of interleukin-2 absorption was similar for inflammatory bowel disease and control cells. Induction of interleukin-2 by different stimuli (phorbol ester, phytohemagglutinin, or anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody) before or after incubation under basal conditions ("resting") failed to normalize the capacity to generate interleukin-2 by Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis cells. Prostanoids (prostaglandin E2 and 6-keto-prostaglandin F1 alpha) were produced in large amounts in cultures of inflammatory bowel disease cells, but inhibition by indomethacin failed to restore interleukin-2 activity to control levels. Finally, supernatants from Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis cell cultures failed to suppress interleukin-2 production by control CD4+ T cells. Our results show that the low interleukin-2 activity detected in inflammatory bowel disease mucosa is not caused by activated suppressor cells, excessive lymphokine utilization or immune stimulation, a defective response to activation signals, or production of inhibitory substances. Rather, the low interleukin-2 activity appears to be related to a loss of interleukin-2-producing mucosal CD4+ T cells. It is concluded that abnormalities of intestinal CD4+ T-cell function are associated with the immunopathogenesis of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.

Intestinal immune reactivity to interleukin 2 differs among Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and controls.

When stimulated by the lymphokine interleukin 2, human intestinal mucosal mononuclear cells mediate lymphokine-activated killer cell activity. When supplied with optimal doses of exogenous interleukin 2, lamina propria mononuclear cells isolated from inflammatory bowel disease and control tissue display comparable levels of cytotoxicity in vitro. However, cultures of Crohn's disease- and ulcerative colitis-derived cells contain significantly decreased interleukin 2 activity, suggesting that in vivo the availability of interleukin 2 may be limited, perhaps resulting in impaired cytotoxic function. To test this hypothesis, lamina propria mononuclear cells from inflammatory bowel disease and control patients were stimulated to produce endogenous interleukin 2, which was then used to induce autologous lymphokine-activated killer cells. When tested against K562 and Daudi target cells, Crohn's disease cells, despite producing only one-third of the amount of interleukin 2 generated by control cells, exhibited comparable levels of cytotoxicity. In contrast, ulcerative colitis cells produced substantially less interleukin 2 and exhibited remarkably low lymphokine-activated killer cell activity. When the same cells were supplied with an amount of human recombinant interleukin 2 equivalent to the average titer found in control cultures, similar results were obtained, and Crohn's disease cells even showed a significantly greater cytolytic activity than controls. These results suggest that the observed differences in lymphokine-activated killer cell activity cannot be attributed to the level of interleukin 2 alone, and that response to this lymphokine is different among Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and control intestine. In Crohn's disease, there is either an increased number of interleukin 2-responsive cells or an exacerbated reactivity to interleukin 2. In ulcerative colitis, a loss of interleukin 2-responsive cells, a hyporesponsiveness to interleukin 2, or both might be present. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that reactivity to interleukin 2 distinguishes inflammatory bowel disease from control intestinal mononuclear cells, and, under appropriate experimental conditions, it can be used to uncover abnormalities of intestinal immunity.

Expression of HLA-DR antigens in inflammatory bowel disease mucosa: role of intestinal lamina propria mononuclear cell-derived interferon gamma.

The expression of HLA-DR antigens on the surface of immune cells is crucial for appropriate antigen presentation and a normal immune response. In the intestinal mucosa involved by Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis the expression of HLA-DR antigens is increased in both immune and nonimmune cells, a phenomenon probably mediated by soluble factors, such as interferon gamma, produced by locally activated mononuclear cells. This study investigated the production of interferon gamma by inflammatory bowel disease and control intestinal lamina propria mononuclear cells, and the ability of this endogenously produced lymphokine to induce expression of HLA-DR antigens on the monocytic cell lines U937 and ML3. After in vitro stimulation with interleukin 2 or phytohemagglutinin, but not spontaneously, lamina propria mononuclear cells produced variable amounts of interferon gamma, and their culture supernatants could induce de novo expression of HLA-DR antigens on the monocytic indicator cells. When the mononuclear cells were derived from inflammatory bowel disease mucosa, both the amount of interferon gamma present in the supernatants and the number of HLA-DR-positive cells induced by these supernatants were decreased as compared to controls. These results suggest that, in inflammatory bowel disease, interferon gamma may not be the only mediator of HLA-DR induction in the gut and that other soluble factors or agents, alone or interacting with interferon gamma, may also be responsible for this event, resulting in the enhanced HLA-DR antigen expression observed in the inflamed intestinal mucosa.

Interferon gamma production by human intestinal mucosal mononuclear cells. Decreased levels in inflammatory bowel disease.

Immune (gamma) interferon is a substance produced by immunologically activated mononuclear cells. Besides its antiviral activity, interferon gamma has a crucial role in immunoregulation, by acting directly upon lymphocytes and monocytes, and interacting with other soluble mediators of the immune response. Studies of the interferons system in inflammatory bowel disease have been limited, and little information is available on the generation of interferon during immunological events occurring in the human gut. To investigate the capacity of intestinal mucosal mononuclear cells to produce interferon gamma, lamina proprial mononuclear cells, isolated from Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and control patients, were incubated with interleukin 2 or phytohemagglutinin, and the amounts of interferon gamma present in the culture supernatants were measured by a virus cytopathic effect inhibition assay. Under identical stimulatory conditions, culture supernatants of cells derived from actively involved mucosa of inflammatory bowel disease specimens contained two- to fivefold less interferon gamma than those of cells from control tissue. However, the amount of interferon gamma present in supernatants of cells from uninvolved inflammatory bowel disease mucosa was similar to that found in control supernatants. These results indicate that, in patients with active Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, mononuclear cells produce decreased amounts of interferon gamma in the intestinal mucosa. The exact significance of these findings is unclear, but because of the importance of interferon gamma in a variety of cell-mediated immune phenomena, its impaired availability might be relevant to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease.

Modulation of intestinal immune reactivity by interleukin 2. Phenotypic and functional analysis of lymphokine-activated killer cells from human intestinal mucosa.

There is evidence indicating that interleukin 2 may be important in the regulation of intestinal immunity, as suggested by its capacity to induce nonspecific cytotoxic (lymphokine-activated killer) activity from human intestinal mucosal mononuclear cells. The present study was designed to further explore the phenotypic and functional changes induced by interleukin 2 on intestinal lymphocytes derived from inflammatory bowel disease and control tissues. Immunohistology of intestinal mucosa demonstrated few cells bearing the activation antigen recognized by anti-Tac (anti-interleukin 2 receptor) monoclonal antibody. However, when isolated lamina proprial mononuclear cells were exposed to interleukin 2 in culture, the number of Tac-positive cells increased dramatically, a phenomenon paralleled by the generation of lymphokine-activated killer cell activity. This cytotoxic function was critically dependent on the continuous availability of interleukin 2, but not on the expression of the Tac antigen, since Tac-negative cells were also cytotoxic. Depletion of natural killer cells, fractionation into T cell-enriched and -depleted cells before and after culturing with interleukin 2, and separation into Tac-positive and -negative cells after interleukin 2 activation failed to eliminate lymphokine-activated killer cell activity, suggesting that this phenomenon is mediated by phenotypically and functionally heterogeneous cell subsets. During the induction of lymphokine-activated killer cells variable amounts of interferon-gamma were produced, but these did not correlate with the degree of cytotoxicity. No differences were observed between the response to interleukin 2 by inflammatory bowel disease and control cells. Therefore, in view of its capacity to induce significant phenotypic and functional changes in different subpopulations of intestinal mucosal mononuclear cells, interleukin 2 should be regarded as an important modulator of intestinal immune reactivity.

Lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells from human intestinal mucosa: cytotoxic activity against tumor cell lines and modified self but not autologous and allogeneic colon cancer cells.

Patients with colorectal cancer respond poorly to in vivo immunotherapy with lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells generated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). We postulated that gut-derived immune cells could be a more relevant source of LAK cells directed against colorectal cancer. Intestinal lamina propria mononuclear cells (LPMC) and colonic adenocarcinoma cells were isolated from operative specimens by combination of mechanical and enzymatic dissociation methods. LAK cells were generated by culturing PBMC and LPMC with recombinant interleukin 2 (IL2), with and without OKT3 monoclonal antibody, in short- (4 days) and long-term (21 days) cultures. Other cultured tumor cells, normal intestinal fibroblasts, and hapten-modified autologous LPMC were used as control targets. Cytotoxicity was measured by a 4-hr 51Cr release assay. Short-term cultured LAK cells exhibited a strong to moderate degree of killing against normal intestinal fibroblasts, hapten-modified self cells, and four different tumor cell lines. Instead, fresh colon cancer cells were resistant to cytotoxicity, regardless of their degree of histologic differentiation and the autologous or allogeneic nature of the LAK cells. Long-term culture with IL2 remarkably increased LAK cell activity against all tumor targets, but not against colonic adenocarcinoma cells. The results of this study, showing that freshly isolated colon cancer cells are intrinsically resistant in vitro to highly activated cytotoxic effector cells, may explain the poor clinical results observed in human trials with in vivo administration of IL2 or LAK cells.

Human intestinal mucosal mononuclear cells exhibit lymphokine-activated killer cell activity.

Previous investigations have shown that mononuclear cells present in human intestinal mucosa possess cytotoxic properties that are unique and different from those of cells circulating in the peripheral blood. We have further explored the cytolytic capacity of human intestinal mucosal mononuclear cells using both phenotypic and functional criteria. Using an immunoperoxidase technique on gut frozen sections, we failed to identify cells bearing surface markers displayed by natural killer cells and recognized by the monoclonal antibodies Leu7, Leu11, and Leu15. Freshly isolated human lamina proprial mononuclear cells (LPMC) were unable to lyse K562 target cells, even after using a variety of experimental conditions which included depletion of adherent cells, fractionation by Percoll gradients or panning with monoclonal antibodies, and treatment with a prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor or interferon-gamma. In contrast, when LPMC were cultured in the presence of the lymphokine interleukin 2 (IL 2), they displayed high levels of cytotoxicity against both K562 and Daudi target cells. Such cytolytic activity appeared after 1 or 2 days of culture, was dependent on the amount of IL 2 added to the cultures, was independent of plastic adherent cells, and could be inhibited by agents that block proliferation. Interferon-gamma, when used under experimental conditions identical to those adopted for IL 2, was unable to induce any significant cytotoxicity by LPMC or enhance the level of killing obtained by stimulation with IL 2 alone. This IL 2-induced, nonspecific cytotoxicity of LPMC probably represents a form of lymphokine-activated killer cell function similar to that recently described for human peripheral blood lymphocytes. In view of the absence of morphologic and functional evidence for natural killer cells in human intestinal mucosa, the phenomenon of lymphokine-activated killer cell activity displayed by LPMC may represent an alternate cytotoxic function potentially relevant to intestinal mucosa immunity.

Interleukin 2 activity of human intestinal mucosa mononuclear cells. Decreased levels in inflammatory bowel disease.

Interleukin 2, a soluble product of activated T lymphocytes, is of central importance in the development of an appropriate T-cell immune response. Defects in the production of or response to this lymphokine have been described in a variety of immune deficiency and autoimmune states, thus suggesting a role in the pathogenesis of such disorders. To investigate potential abnormalities of interleukin 2 in inflammatory bowel disease, we measured its activity in cultures of intestinal mucosa mononuclear cells derived from Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis patients. Lamina propria mononuclear cells from inflamed and control tissues were incubated with phorbol myristate acetate, and the amount of the lymphokine in the supernatants was quantitated in a biological assay using cloned, interleukin 2-dependent, cytotoxic mouse T-cell lines. We found that, in culture supernatants of cells from both forms of inflammatory bowel disease, interleukin 2 levels were significantly lower than those detected in cultures containing cells from histologically normal mucosa. Low levels were not correlated to duration, clinical activity, and anatomical location of the disease process or corticosteriod therapy. Deficient activity of this essential growth factor could contribute to abnormal T-cell proliferation and clonal expansion at the gut mucosal level, perhaps inducing a defective immune response leading to a chronic inflammatory reaction in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.

Immunoregulatory function of human intestinal mucosa lymphoid cells: evidence for enhanced suppressor cell activity in inflammatory bowel disease.

Abnormalities in immune regulation at the gut level may be relevant to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease, but little is known about the immunoregulatory properties of intestinal mononuclear cells. Therefore, we wished to see if lymphoid cells derived from the lamina propria of surgically resected bowel specimens have any modulatory effect upon the immune response of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease. When autologous peripheral blood and intestinal lamina propria lymphoid cells were mixed at different ratios and cultured in the presence of phytohaemagglutinin, we were able to show that intestinal mononuclear cells had the capacity to modify the mitogenic response of the cultured cells. These intestinal immunoregulatory cells, when obtained from mucosa affected by inflammatory bowel disease, express a significantly enhanced suppressor cell activity as compared with those from non-inflamed control mucosa. Such suppressor cell activity varies with cell concentration and requires cell proliferation, but it is independent of anatomical origin (small vs large bowel), type of inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis vs Crohn's disease) or immunosuppressive therapy. These findings point to an important functional difference between inflammatory bowel disease and control intestinal mucosa mononuclear cells. The enhanced suppressor activity of lamina propria mononuclear cells may be associated with impairment of cell-mediated immunity at the gut level. This may be related to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease by leading to defective intestinal immune regulatory events, which may not be detectable at the peripheral level.