Evaluation of 2-week repeated oral dose toxicity of 100 nm zinc oxide nanoparticles in rats.

The aim of this study was to verify subacute oral dose toxicity of positively charged 100 nm zinc oxide (ZnO(AE100[+])) nanoparticles (NPs) in Sprague-Dawley rats. ZnO(AE100[+]) NPs were administered to rats of each sex by gavage at 0, 500, 1,000, and 2,000 mg/kg/day for 14 days. During the study period, clinical signs, mortality, body weight, food consumption, hematology, serum biochemistry, gross pathology, organ weight, and histopathology were examined. Increased mortality and clinical signs, decreased body weight, feed consumption, hemoglobin (HB), hematocrit (HCT), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), platelet (PT), and lymphocyte (LYM) and increased white blood cells (WBCs), neutrophils (NEUs), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and histopathological alterations in the spleen, stomach, and pancreas were observed at 2,000 mg/kg/day. Increased clinical signs, decreased body weight, feed consumption, HB, HCT, MCV, MCH, MCHC, and LYM and increased WBCs, NEUs, ALP, and histopathological alterations in the spleen, stomach, and pancreas were seen at 1,000 mg/kg/day. Increased clinical signs, decreased MCV and MCH and increased histopathological alterations in the stomach and pancreas were found at 500 mg/kg/day. These results suggest that the target organs were the spleen, stomach, and pancreas in rats. The no-observed-adverse-effect level was <500 mg/kg for both sexes.

CKD-501, a novel selective PPARγ agonist, shows no carcinogenic potential in ICR mice following oral administration for 104 weeks.

CKD-501 is a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) agonist that is effective for the treatment of diabetes. However, its carcinogenic potential remains controversial. The current carcinogenicity study was conducted over a period of 104 weeks in ICR mice. Three groups, each consisting of 60 male and 60 female mice, received oral CKD-501 dosages of 0.2, 1.0 or 6.0 mg kg(-1) day(-1). The mortality rates of the male control, 0.2, 1.0 and 6.0 mg kg(-1) day(-1) treated groups were 60%, 68%, 58% and 67%, respectively and 57%, 68% and 67% in the female control, 0.2 and 1.0 mg kg(-1) day(-1) treated groups. It was 67% in the female 6.0 mg kg(-1) day(-1) treated group, which was terminated at week 98 due to its increased mortality rate. No significant treatment-related effects were observed on the survival rates, with the exception of females in the 6.0 mg kg(-1) day(-1) group. Body weights increased in females receiving 1.0 and 6.0 mg kg(-1) day(-1) due to the class effects of the PPARγ agonist. Differences were not found in hematology parameters between the CKD-501-treated groups and their corresponding controls, but the histopathological evidence did not reveal any findings attributed to CKD-501. Treated animals exhibited non-neoplastic findings (adipocyte proliferation, bone marrow hypoplasia cardiomyopathy), but all of these were expected changes for this class of compound. There were no treatment-related neoplastic changes in this study. The results of this study therefore demonstrate a lack of carcinogenicity following oral administration of CKD-501 to ICR mice for 104 weeks.

Toxicity of 100 nm zinc oxide nanoparticles: a report of 90-day repeated oral administration in Sprague Dawley rats.

Nanoparticles (NPs) are used commercially in health and fitness fields, but information about the toxicity and mechanisms underlying the toxic effects of NPs is still very limited. The aim of this study is to investigate the toxic effect(s) of 100 nm negatively (ZnO(AE100[-])) or positively (ZnO(AE100[+])) charged zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs administered by gavage in Sprague Dawley rats, to establish a no observed adverse effect level, and to identify target organ(s). After verification of the primary particle size, morphology, hydrodynamic size, and zeta potential of each test article, we performed a 90-day study according to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development test guideline 408. For the 90-day study, the high dose was set at 500 mg/kg and the middle and low doses were set at 125 mg/kg and 31.25 mg/kg, respectively. Both ZnO NPs had significant changes in hematological and blood biochemical analysis, which could correlate with anemia-related parameters, in the 500 mg/kg groups of both sexes. Histopathological examination showed significant adverse effects (by both test articles) in the stomach, pancreas, eye, and prostate gland tissues, but the particle charge did not affect the tendency or the degree of the lesions. We speculate that this inflammatory damage might result from continuous irritation caused by both test articles. Therefore, the target organs for both ZnO(AE100(-)) and ZnO(AE100(+)) are considered to be the stomach, pancreas, eye, and prostate gland. Also, the no observed adverse effect level for both test articles was identified as 31.25 mg/kg for both sexes, because the adverse effects were observed at all doses greater than 125 mg/kg.

Effects of Nano-sized Carbon Black on the Lungs of High Fat-diet Induced Overweight Rats.

OBJECTIVES: This study was conducted to determine whether nano-sized carbon black exposure results in greater damage in high fat diet-induced overweight rats than normal weight ones and to identify the possible causes of any differences. METHODS: Two groups of Sprague-Dawley rats allocated by body weight (normal and overweight) were exposed to aerosolized nano-sized carbon black for 6 hours a day, 5 days per week over a 4-week period. Differential cell counts, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities and albumin concentrations were measured in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, and histopathological findings in the lungs were evaluated. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-6 were measured in BAL fluid and supernatants of lipopolysaccharide(LPS)-stimulated lymphocyte culture. RESULTS: Rats exposed to high concentrations of nano-sized carbon black showed significantly increased (p<0.05) polymorphonuclear leukocyte number and LDH activity in the BAL fluid from both overweight and normal rats. Mild histopathological changes were observed in normal rats irrespective of carbon black concentrations. However, severe histological scores were found in overweight rats (1.75±0.46, 2.25±0.46, and 2.88±0.35 after low, medium, and high concentration exposures). Proinflammatory cytokine levels of TNF-α and IL-6 were significantly higher in the supernatant of LPS-stimulated lymphocytes of overweight rats, whereas there was no significant difference in the BAL fluid between normal and overweight rats. CONCLUSIONS: Inflammation and damage to lungs exposed to nano-sized carbon black was more severe in high fat diet-induced overweight rats compared to normal rats.

Assessment of dermal safety of Scutellaria baicalensis aqueous extract topical application on skin hypersensitivity.

Scutellaria baicalensis has been used as a traditional herbal medicine for bronchitis, hepatitis, and allergic diseases. The root of Scutellaria baicalensis contains active flavonoid components, including baicalin, baicalein, wogonoside, and wogonin, which have pharmaceutical properties. In the present study, the antiallergic properties of a standardized aqueous extract of S. baicalensis were evaluated, and the skin toxicity of its dermal application was also determined. The in vivo and in vitro assays were performed by using the ß-hexosaminidase assay in rat basophilic leukemia cells (RBL-2H3) and cutaneous skin reaction in BALB/c mice, respectively. In addition, the acute dermal irritation/corrosion test was carried out in New Zealand white rabbits, and the skin sensitization test was conducted by Buhler's method in Hartley guinea pigs to estimate the safety of the standardized aqueous extract of S. baicalensis for topical application. ß-Hexosaminidase release in RBL-2H3 was markedly decreased following treatment with the standardized aqueous extract of S. baicalensis. It also ameliorated antigen-induced ear swelling compared with the control group in BALB/c mice. In the toxicological studies, it did not induce any dermal irritation/corrosion in rabbits or skin sensitization in guinea pigs. Although still limited, these results concerning the toxicological effects of S. baicalensis could be an initial step toward the topical application of S. baicalensis extracts on hypersensitive skin.

Influence of the injection site on the pharmacokinetics of cefquinome following intramuscular injection in piglets.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of different injection sites, i.e., the neck area and thigh muscle, on the pharmacokinetics of cefquinome in piglets following intramuscular (i.m.) injection. Cross-bred (Landrace × Duroc × Yorkshire) piglets were administered the same dose of cefquinome (2 mg/kg body weight) via intravenous injection and intramuscular injection into the neck area or thigh. The mean maximum concentrations (C(max)) of cefquinome following i.m. injection into neck or thigh area were 4.62 ± 0.31 µg/ml at 0.38 ± 0.14 hr and 4.39 ± 0.53 µg/ml at 0.42 ± 0.13 hr, respectively. The absolute bioavailabilities (F) of cefquinome after i.m. injection into the neck or thigh area were 103.04 ± 13.01 and 97.56 ± 16.14%, respectively (P>0.05). There were no differences noted between the two different injection sites for the pharmacokinetic properties of cefquinome after i.m. injection in piglets. Further studies will be needed to determine the incidence or severity of injection site reactions following repeated administrations of cefquinome into both injection sites.

Platycodin D attenuates bile duct ligation-induced hepatic injury and fibrosis in mice.

Platycodin D (PD) is the major triterpene saponin in the root of Platycodon grandiflorum. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the protective effects of PD on bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced cholestasis in mice. Mice were allocated to five groups: sham, BDL alone, and BDL with PD treatment at 1, 2, and 4mg/kg. PD was administered to the mice for 28 consecutive days after the BDL operation. PD treatment of BDL-operated mice decreased serum alanine aminotransferase, serum aspartate aminotransferase, and total bilirubin levels by up to 37%, 31%, and 41%, respectively, in comparison with the levels in mice that underwent BDL alone. PD treatment attenuated oxidative stress, as evidenced by an increase in anti-oxidative enzyme levels glutathione and superoxide dismutase together with a decrease in lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress indices levels of malondialdehyde and nitric oxide. Histopathological studies further confirmed the protective effects of PD on cholestasis-induced hepatic injury and liver fibrosis in mice. In addition, nuclear factor-kappa B and inducible nitric oxide synthase levels significantly decreased after PD treatment, as did the levels of hepatocyte apoptosis. Taken together, these results suggest that PD treatment might be beneficial in cholestasis-induced hepatotoxicity.

Effects of berberine and hwangryunhaedok-tang on oral bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of ciprofloxacin in rats.

Hwangryunhaedok-Tang (HR) and berberine-containing single herbs are used to treat bacterial infection and inflammatory diseases in eastern Asia. The combination of berberine-containing herbal medicines and ciprofloxacin can be an excellent antibacterial chemotherapy against multidrug resistance bacteria. To evaluate the pretreatment effect of berberine and HR, vehicle, berberine (25 and 50 mg/kg/day), and HR (1.4 g/kg/day) were daily administered to rats for five consecutive days. On day 6, ciprofloxacin was administered (10 mg/kg, i.v. and 20 mg/kg, p.o.) to rats. To assess cotreatment effect of berberine and ciprofloxacin, berberine (50 mg/kg) and ciprofloxacin (20 mg/kg) were coadministered by single oral gavage. Pharmacokinetic data were estimated by noncompartmental model. Compared with ciprofloxacin alone (control group), coadministration of berberine (50 mg/kg) and ciprofloxacin significantly decreased C(max) of ciprofloxacin (P < 0.05). In addition, the pretreatment of berberine (50 mg/kg/day) and HR (1.4 g/kg/day) significantly decreased C(max) and AUC(0→∞), compared with control group (P < 0.05). The oral bioavailability of ciprofloxacin was reduced by cotreatment of berberine and pretreatment of berberine and HR. Our results suggest that the expression of P-glycoprotein and organic anion and/or organic cation transporters (OAT/OCT) could take a role in reduced oral bioavailability of ciprofloxacin by berberine and HR.

Protective effect of the aqueous extract from the root of Platycodon grandiflorum on cholestasis-induced hepatic injury in mice.

CONTEXT: The root of Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. (Campanulaceae) has been widely studied for its hepatoprotective effects against various hepatotoxicants. OBJECTIVE: The present study evaluated the protective effect of the standardized aqueous extract of P. grandiflorum (BC703) on cholestasis-induced hepatic injury in mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: BC703 is a standardized aqueous extract of P. grandiflorum in reference to platycodin D (at least 0.8%). The mice were allocated into five groups as follows: Sham-operated, bile duct ligation (BDL) alone, and BDL with BC703 (1, 5, and 10 mg/kg BW) treated group. BC703 was given for 3 consecutive days before BDL operation. The animals were sacrificed by CO2 anesthesia post-24 h of BDL operations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Serum alanine aminotransferase and serum aspartate aminotransferase increased to 395.2 ± 90.0 and 266.0 ± 45.6 Unit/L in the BDL alone group and decreased with BC703 in a dose-dependent manner. Especially the 10 mg/kg of BC703-treated mice showed a 77% decrease of serum alanine aminotransferase and 56% of aspartate aminotransferase as compared with BDL alone. Decreased antioxidant enzyme levels in BDL alone group were elevated in BC703-treated groups ranging from 7 to 29% for glutathione and from 13 to 25% for superoxide dismutase. BC703 treatment also attenuated malondialdehyde (from 3 to 32%) and nitric oxide levels (from 32 to 50%) as compared with BDL alone. Histopathological studies further confirmed the hepatoprotective effect of BC703 in BDL-induced cholestesis. CONCLUSION: BC703 could attenuate liver injury by BDL in mice, and test results indicate that BC703 might be useful in cholestatic liver injury.

Hepatoprotective and anti-hepatitis C viral activity of Platycodon grandiflorum extract on carbon tetrachloride-induced acute hepatic injury in mice.

The present study aims to evaluate the anti-HCV activity of hotwater extract from Platycodon grandiflorum (BC703) with HCV genotype 1b subgenomic replicon system and investigate its hepatoprotective activity on carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4))-induced acute liver damage in mice. BC703 produced significant hepatoprotective effects against CCl(4)-induced acute hepatic injury by decreasing the activities of serum enzymes, nitric oxide and lipid peroxidation. Histopathological studies further substantiated the protective effect of BC703. Furthermore, BC703 inhibited the HCV RNA replication with an EC(50) value and selective index (CC(50)/EC(50)) of 2.82 µg/mL and above 35.46, respectively. However, digested BC703 using a simulated gastric juice showed poor protective effect against CCl(4)-induced hepatotoxicity in mice and decreased anti-HCV activity as compared to the intact BC703. Although further studies are necessary, BC703 may be a beneficial agent for the management of acute hepatic injury and chronic HCV infection.

Platycodin D, a triterpenoid sapoinin from Platycodon grandiflorum, ameliorates cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in mice.

Platycodin D (PD) is well known as a potent triterpenoid saponin having various pharmacological activities isolated from the root of Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. (Campanulaceae). We aimed to evaluate protective effect of PD on cisplatin (CDDP)-induced nephrotoxicity. Male ICR mice were allocated into five groups as follows: Negative control, CDDP alone and CDDP with PD (0.1, 1 and 5 mg/kg) treated group. PD was given for three consecutive days before CDDP injection. Increased blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine (CRE) levels in CDDP alone treated mice were decreased to normal range by pretreatment with PD. It also decreased nitric oxide (NO) and lipid peroxidation with increased antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in PD pretreated mice. In histopathological examination, pretreatment with PD showed ameliorated renal injury such as intraluminal cast formation and epithelial desquamation. Furthermore, over-expression of nuclear factor-kappa B p65 and apoptotic cells were suppressed by PD pretreatment. Taken together, PD pretreatment might be beneficial to CDDP-induced nephrotoxicity.

Effect of orange oil on the oral absorption of enrofloxacin in rats.

This study was conducted to evaluate the oral absorption of enrofloxacin (ENFX) in rats when administered with orange oil or its main component, limonene. Compared with the group administered ENFX alone, the ENFX + limonene group did not show any significant difference in the absorption of ENFX, whereas the extent and rate of absorption of ENFX were significantly decreased in the ENFX + orange oil group (C(max), -43%; T(max), 129%). In addition, t(1/2λz) and MRT of ENFX were prolonged by the concomitant administration of orange oil. The AUCs of ENFX were not affected in the ENFX + orange oil group. These results suggest that decreased oral absorption could reduce the efficacy of ENFX therapy in animals.

Single-dose oral toxicity of fermented scutellariae radix extract in rats and dogs.

The aim of this study was to investigate the acute oral toxicity of fermented Scutellariae Radix (JKTMHGu- 100) in rats and dogs. JKTM-HGu-100 was orally administered at a dose of 2,000 mg/kg in Sprague-Dawley rats. An escalating single-dose oral toxicity test in beagle dogs was performed at doses of 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg with 4-day intervals. Clinical signs, changes in body weight, mortality, and necropsy findings were examined for 2 weeks following oral administration. No toxicological changes related to the test substance nor mortality was observed after administration of a single oral dose of JKTM-HGu-100 in rats or dogs. Therefore, the approximate lethal dose (LD) for oral administration of JKTMHGu-100 in rats was considered to be over 2,000 mg/kg, and the maximum tolerance doses (MTDs) in rats and dogs were also estimated to be over 2,000 mg/kg. These results indicate that JKTM-HGu-100 shows no toxicity in rodents or non-rodents at doses of 2,000 mg/kg or less.

In vivo metabolism of Talosin A, new isoflavonol glycoside from Kitasatospora kifunensis, in rats.

The isoflavonol glycoside Talosin A, genistein (GT)-7-α-L-6-deoxy talopyranose (GT-Tal), was first isolated from the culture broth of Kitasatospora kifunensis MJM341. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the oral absorption and metabolism of the newly isolated isoflavonol glycoside, GT-Tal compared to genistin (GT-7-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside; GT-Glu). Free GT-Glu and GT-Tal could not be detected prior to enzymatic hydrolysis of the corresponding conjugates in rat plasma. Following oral administration of GT-Tal (15 min), GT-Tal was rapidly absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and metabolized into GT-Tal conjugates with a mean C(max) of 2.74 µg/mL. GT-Tal was further metabolized to its aglycone, free GT and conjugated GT. After oral administration, GT-Glu was absorbed after being converted to its aglycone and then further metabolized into its conjugate metabolites (free GT with a mean C(max) of 0.24 mg/mL at 1.25 h; conjugated GT with a mean C(max) of 1.31 mg/mL at 2.00 h). Significant differences in absorption and metabolism of GT-Tal and GT-Glu were observed. GT-Tal was metabolized into its corresponding conjugates or underwent deglycosylation to form GT, whereas GT-Glu was metabolized into its aglycone, GT.

Effects of acute hepatic and renal failure on pharmacokinetics of flunixin meglumine in rats.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of hepatic and renal failure on the pharmacokinetics of flunixin in carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4))- and glycerol-treated rats. After intravenous administration of flunixin (2 mg/kg), the plasma concentration of flunixin was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. Both acute hepatic and renal failure resulted in significantly increased area under the curve (AUC), prolonged elimination half-life (t(1/2ß)), and reduced total body clearance (Cl(tot)) compared with respective controls (P<0.05). In conclusion, hepatic failure as well as renal failure modified the pharmacokinetics of flunixin.

Protective Effects of Platycodon grandiflorum Aqueous Extract on Thioacetamide-induced Fulminant Hepatic Failure in Mice.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the protective activity of aqueous extract from Platycodon grandiflorum (BC703) on thioacetamide (TA)-induced hepatotoxicity in mice. We found that BC703 significantly decreased mortality and the change in serum transaminase following TA administration. The group treated with BC703 at doses of 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg produced significant hepatoprotective effects against TA-induced liver damage by decreasing the activities of serum enzymes, nitric oxide and lipid peroxidation in dose-dependent manners. Histopathological studies further substantiated the protective effect of BC703. These results show the hepatoprotective activity of aqueous extract from Platycodon grandiflorum on thioacetamide-induced fulminant hepatic failure.

Pharmacokinetics of toltrazuril and its metabolites, toltrazuril sulfoxide and toltrazuril sulfone, after a single oral administration to pigs.

Toltrazuril (TZR) is a triazine-based antiprotozoal agent. Following a single oral administration of TZR at 10 and 20 mg/kg to male pigs, the mean TZR concentration in plasma peaked at 4.24 and 8.18 microg/ml at 15.0 and 12.0 hr post-dose, respectively. TZR absorbed was rapidly converted to the short-lived intermediary metabolite toltrazuril sulfoxide (TZR-SO), and then metabolized to the reactive toltrazuril sulfone (TZR-SO2). TZR-SO2 was actually more slowly eliminated, with average half-lives of 231 and 245 hr, compared with TZR (48.7 and 68.9 hr) or TZR-SO (51.9 and 53.2 hr) in the 10 and 20 mg/kg groups, respectively. This study demonstrates that TZR metabolizes to TZR-SO2 having a long-terminal half-life, enabling the persistent clinical efficacy in the treatment of I. suis infection. In contrast, special consideration should be given to the residual of TZR-SO2.

Plasma disposition of toltrazuril and its metabolites, toltrazuril sulfoxide and toltrazuril sulfone, in rabbits after oral administration.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the pharmacokinetic profiles of toltrazuril (TZR), and its major metabolites toltrazuril sulfoxide (TZR x SO) and toltrazuril sulfone (TZR x SO(2)) in rabbits after oral administrations. Rabbits were dosed once with 10 and 20mg/kg TZR via stomach tube with manual restraint. The plasma concentrations of TZR, TZR x SO and TZR x SO(2) were determined by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. Plasma concentration-time data after single oral administration were analyzed by a non-compartmental analysis. Plasma peak concentrations of TZR, TZR x SO and TZR x SO(2) were 30.2+/-1.5microg/mL at 20.0+/-6.9h, 8.9+/-1.3microg/mL at 20.0+/-6.9h and 14.7+/-3.9microg/mL at 96.0+/-0.0h after oral administration of TZR with 10mg/kg bw, respectively. The terminal elimination half-lives for TZR, TZR x SO and TZR x SO(2) after oral dose of 10mg/kg were 52.7+/-3.6, 56.1+/-10.7 and 76.7+/-7.5h, respectively. Plasma peak concentrations of TZR, TZR x SO and TZR x SO(2) were 39.4+/-1.2microg/mL at 28.0+/-6.9h, 12.5+/-3.9microg/mL at 20.0+/-6.9h and 24.9+/-8.74microg/mL at 112.0+/-6.9h after oral administration of TZR with 20mg/kg bw, respectively. The terminal elimination half-lives for TZR, TZR x SO and TZR x SO(2) after oral dose of 20mg/kg were 56.7+/-1.9, 68.8+/-12.5 and 82.3+/-12.6h, respectively. In conclusion, TZR was very well-absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and rapidly metabolized to TZR x SO and TZR x SO(2) in rabbits after oral administration. TZR x SO(2) was actually more slowly eliminated than TZR and TZR x SO.

Anti-inflammatory effects of talosin A via inhibition of NF-kappaB activation in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 cells.

Aim of work To determine whether talosin A inhibits production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide (NO) in lipopolysaccharide (1 mug/ml)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Talosin A (10 and 50 mug/ml) significantly reduced LPS-induced overproduction of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin IL-1beta, -6 and NO in a dose-dependent manner (P < 0.01). Talosin A had a direct NO-scavenging activity in the cell-free system. In RT-PCR analysis, gene expressions were inhibited at a transcriptional level. Moreover, the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappaB) was significantly suppressed by talosin A in LPS-stimulated macrophage cells (P < 0.05). Therefore, we confirmed anti-inflammatory activity of talosin A was via suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, NO production and NF-kappaB activation, suggesting a therapeutic candidate for inflammatory disorders.

Genotoxic Evaluation of Surfactin C in Chinese Hamster Lung Cell Line.

To investigate the mutation inducibility of surfactin C, we performed the chromosome aberration assay with Chinese hamster lung cells in vitro. The colorimetric MTT screening assay was carried out to determine the cytotoxicity index (IC50) of surfactin C. The IC50 value was 125 µg/ml. For the chromosome aberration test of surfactin C, the maximum concentration was employed as 125 µg/ml, followed by 62.5 and 31.25 µg/ml for the lower concentrations, with or without metabolic activation (S9). Cyclophosphamide and mitomycin C were used as positive controls in the presence and absence of S9 metabolic activation, respectively. These results showed that surfactin C was not capable of inducing chromosome aberration, as measured by the chromosome aberration test using Chinese hamster lung cell line. There is no evidence for surfactin C to have a genotoxic potential.