Actionable loss of SLF2 drives B-cell lymphomagenesis and impairs the DNA damage response.

The DNA damage response (DDR) acts as a barrier to malignant transformation and is often impaired during tumorigenesis. Exploiting the impaired DDR can be a promising therapeutic strategy; however, the mechanisms of inactivation and corresponding biomarkers are incompletely understood. Starting from an unbiased screening approach, we identified the SMC5-SMC6 Complex Localization Factor 2 (SLF2) as a regulator of the DDR and biomarker for a B-cell lymphoma (BCL) patient subgroup with an adverse prognosis. SLF2-deficiency leads to loss of DDR factors including Claspin (CLSPN) and consequently impairs CHK1 activation. In line with this mechanism, genetic deletion of Slf2 drives lymphomagenesis in vivo. Tumor cells lacking SLF2 are characterized by a high level of DNA damage, which leads to alterations of the post-translational SUMOylation pathway as a safeguard. The resulting co-dependency confers synthetic lethality to a clinically applicable SUMOylation inhibitor (SUMOi), and inhibitors of the DDR pathway act highly synergistic with SUMOi. Together, our results identify SLF2 as a DDR regulator and reveal co-targeting of the DDR and SUMOylation as a promising strategy for treating aggressive lymphoma.

LINC01094 Predicts Poor Prognosis in Patients With Gastric Cancer and is Correlated With EMT and Macrophage Infiltration.

Objectives: The novel long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) LINC01094 is often upregulated in renal cell carcinoma and glioma; however, its role in gastric cancer remains unclear. Here, we aim to demonstrate the relationship between LINC01094 and gastric cancer. Method: The gene expression (RNASeq) data of 375 patients with localized, locally advanced, and metastatic gastric cancer were extracted from The Cancer Genome Atlas. The Kruskal-Wallis test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and logistic regression were used to analyze the relationship between the clinicopathological characteristics and LINC01094 expression. Cox regression analysis and the Kaplan-Meier method were used to assess prognostic factors of gastric cancer. A nomogram based on Cox multivariate analysis was used to predict the impact of LINC01094 on gastric cancer prognosis. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was used to identify key LINC01094-associated signaling pathways. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) was performed to detect the location of LINC01094 in the tissue, and a competing endogenous (ce)RNA network was constructed to identify LINC01094-related genes. Spearman's rank correlation was used to elucidate the association between LINC01094 expression level and immune cell infiltration level. Result: LINC01094 expression was upregulated in gastric cancer tissues and strongly associated with overall survival using univariate Cox regression (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.476, 95% CI = 1.060-2.054, P = .021) and multivariate Cox regression analysis (HR = 1.535, 95% CI = 1.021-2.308, P = .039). The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of LINC01094 was 0.910. GSEA showed a strong relationship between LINC01094 and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition pathway. RNA-FISH demonstrated that LINC01094 localized in the cytoplasm. It was closely related to the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) marker SNAI2, according to ceRNA (R = 0.61, P < .001), and macrophage-related gene FCGR2A. Macrophages were also significantly positively correlated with LINC01094 expression (R = 0.747, P < .001). Conclusion: High LINC01094 expression predicts poor prognosis in gastric cancer and is correlated with the epithelial-mesenchymal transition pathway and macrophage infiltration.

NOXA expression drives synthetic lethality to RUNX1 inhibition in pancreatic cancer.

Evasion from drug-induced apoptosis is a crucial mechanism of cancer treatment resistance. The proapoptotic protein NOXA marks an aggressive pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) subtype. To identify drugs that unleash the death-inducing potential of NOXA, we performed an unbiased drug screening experiment. In NOXA-deficient isogenic cellular models, we identified an inhibitor of the transcription factor heterodimer CBFß/RUNX1. By genetic gain and loss of function experiments, we validated that the mode of action depends on RUNX1 and NOXA. Of note is that RUNX1 expression is significantly higher in PDACs compared to normal pancreas. We show that pharmacological RUNX1 inhibition significantly blocks tumor growth in vivo and in primary patient-derived PDAC organoids. Through genome-wide analysis, we detected that RUNX1-loss reshapes the epigenetic landscape, which gains H3K27ac enrichment at the NOXA promoter. Our study demonstrates a previously unknown mechanism of NOXA-dependent cell death, which can be triggered pharmaceutically. Therefore, our data show a way to target a therapy-resistant PDAC, an unmet clinical need.

ADNP prompts the cisplatin-resistance of bladder cancer via TGF-ß-mediated epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) pathway.

Activity-dependent neuroprotective protein (ADNP) is vital for embryonic development and brain formation. Besides, the upregulated expression of ADNP enhances tumorigenesis in some human tumors like bladder cancer (BC). However, the potential roles of ADNP in drug resistance and the related mechanisms in BC is unknown. We performed this study to elucidate the influence of ADNP in the chemoresistance of BC and tried to explore the underlying molecular mechanism. The expressions of ADNP in BC from progression and non-progression patient specimens were measured by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry (IHC). In vitro experiments including colony formation, cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8), wound healing, and in vivo tumorigenesis assay were performed to explore the effects of ADNP on chemoresistance of BC. The impacts of ADNP on TGF-ß/Smad signaling pathways were explored by western blot. Our results showed that the expression of ADNP mRNA and protein were significantly upregulated in BC tissues of the patients who suffered tumor-progression via RT-PCR and western blot. Cox regression survival analysis revealed that patients with high ADNP expression closely linked to shorter tumor-free survival. ADNP downregulation in BC showed more sensitive to cisplatin in vivo, while ADNP overexpression showed the opposite results. Additionally, we confirmed that ADNP promoted cell migration and EMT, thereby inducing cisplatin resistance, which may be related to TGF-ß / Smad signaling pathway.

Tumor Cell-selective Synergism of TRAIL- and ATRA-induced Cytotoxicity in Breast Cancer Cells.

BACKGROUND/AIM: One of the major problems in breast cancer treatment is pharmacoresistance. Therefore, exploration of treatment alternatives is of clinical relevance. The present work focused on tumor cell-inhibiting effects of a combination of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and all trans retinoic acid (ATRA) in breast cancer cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Breast cancer cell lines (BT-20, BT-474, MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-436, MDA-MB-453, MCF-7, SKBR3, T47D, ZR-75-1) and the mammary epithelial cell line MCF-10A were treated with TRAIL and ATRA alone and in combination. Cell viability was assessed via 3-(4,5)-dimethylthiahiazo(-z-yl)-3,5-di-phenytetrazoliumromide (MTT) assay, the potential of cell colony formation via clonogenic assay, cell death induction via cell-cycle analysis by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated UTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay and Cell death detection ELISAPLUS, expression of apoptosis and TRAIL pathway proteins via western blot and cell surface expression of TRAIL receptor 1 (DR4) via FACS analysis. RESULTS: TRAIL and ATRA evoked synergistic inhibition of breast cancer cell viability based on cytostatic and cytotoxic mechanisms. This correlated with augmented fragmentation of nuclear DNA, up-regulation of TRAIL receptor, down-regulation of cyclin D1 and enhancement of caspase activity. MCF-10A cells were merely slightly susceptible to TRAIL and ATRA. CONCLUSION: The cytostatic and cytotoxic effects of the combination of TRAIL and ATRA are tumor cell-selective.

Pretreatment of BMSCs with TZD solution decreases the proliferation rate of MCF­7 cells by reducing FGF4 protein expression.

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of bone marrow­derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) that had been pretreated with pioglitazone and/or rosiglitazone on the growth and proliferation rate of MCF­7 cells. The adhesive interaction between the BMSCs and the MCF­7 cancer cells revealed that the pretreatment of BMSCs with a combination of two types of thiazolidinedione drug reduced the growth and proliferation rate of the MCF­7 cells. The proliferation rate of the MCF­7 cells could also be reduced by the non­adhesive interaction of the cancer cells with BMSCs pretreated with pioglitazone and/or rosiglitazone. The growth and proliferation rate reduction effects on the MCF­7 cells may be attributed to the reduction in the protein level of fibroblast growth factor 4 (FGF4) in the conditioned medium of the pretreated BMSCs. The evidence that the low protein level of FGF4 in the conditioned medium of the pretreated BMSCs perturbed the proliferation rate of the MCF­7 cells by reducing the levels of Ki­67 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen transcripts in the cancer cells was also demonstrated in the present study using a FGF4­neutralizing antibody. All the above findings demonstrate that future studies on the correlation between FGF4 and pretreated BMSCs would be beneficial.

Targeting multiple tyrosine kinase receptors with Dovitinib blocks invasion and the interaction between tumor cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts in breast cancer.

A constitutive and dynamic interaction between tumor cells and their surrounding stroma is a prerequisite for tumor invasion and metastasis. Fibroblasts and myofibroblasts (collectively called cancer associated fibroblasts, CAFs) often represent the major cellular components of tumor stroma. Tumor cells secret different growth factors which induce CAFs proliferation and differentiation, and, consequently, CAFs secrete different chemokines, cytokines or growth factors which induce tumor cell invasion and metastasis. In this study we showed here that CAFs from breast cancer surgical specimens significantly induced the invasion of breast cancer cells in vitro. Most interestingly, the novel multiple tyrosine kinase inhibitor Dovitinib significantly blocked the CAFs-induced invasion of breast cancer cells by, at least in part, inhibition of the expression and secretion of CCL2, CCL5 and VEGF in CAFs. Inhibition of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling could be responsible for the effects of Dovitinib, since Dovitinib antagonized the promoted phosphorylated Akt after treatment with PDGF, FGF or breast cancer cell-conditioned media. Treatment with Dovitinib in combination with PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling inhibitors Ly294002 or RAD001 resulted in additive inhibition of cell invasion. This is the first in vitro study to show that the multiple tyrosine kinase inhibitor has therapeutic activities against breast cancer metastasis by targeting both tumor cells and CAFs.

TKI258, a multi-tyrosine kinase inhibitor is efficacious against human infant/childhood lymphoblastic leukemia in vitro.

BACKGROUND/AIM: The goal of the present study was to evaluate if the multiple tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) TKI258 has any treatment value for infant/childhood acute lymphoblatic leukemia (ALL), especially those ALLs bearing the mixed lineage leukemia (MLL) genes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cell proliferation was measured with 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay; cell apoptosis and cell-cycle distribution with flow cytometry. Gene expression at the protein level was determined by western blotting. RESULTS: These ALL cells were extremely sensitive to TKI258 treatment with a concentration for 50% inhibition of cell proliferation (IC50) values in the nanomolar range in vitro. By combination with mTOR inhibitor RAD001, a synergistic effect on cell death and cell proliferation was observed in these cells. CONCLUSION: TKI258 may become a potent therapeutic agent, either alone or in combination with RAD001, for treatment of ALL, especially the entity with MLL genes.

The multi-tyrosine kinase inhibitor TKI258, alone or in combination with RAD001, is effective for treatment of human leukemia with BCR-ABL translocation in vitro.

BACKGROUND/AIM: BCR-ABL-positive (BCR-ABL(+)) leukemia is very difficult to treat although much improvement has been achieved due to the clinical application of imatinib and the second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). This study aimed to evaluate for the first time the treatment value of the multiple tyrosine kinase inhibitor TKI258 in BCR-ABL(+) leukemia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Proliferation of different BCR-ABL(+) leukemic cells was measured with 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay; cell apoptosis with Annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) and flow cytometry. Gene expression at the protein level was determined by western blotting. RESULTS: This drug showed treatment efficacy in naïve and imatinib-resistant BCR-ABL(+) leukemia cells, particularly in cells harboring T315I-mutated BCR-ABL, for which no effective inhibitor is available to date. By combination with the mTOR inhibitor RAD001, a synergistic effect on cell proliferation was observed in these cell lines. CONCLUSION: TKI258 may become a potent therapeutic agent, either alone or in combination with RAD001, for treatment of BCR-ABL(+) leukemia.

Inhibition of pan-class I phosphatidyl-inositol-3-kinase by NVP-BKM120 effectively blocks proliferation and induces cell death in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most frequent aggressive lymphoma, with a great demand for novel treatments for relapsing and refractory disease. Constitutive activation of the phosphatidyl-inositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway is often detected in this lymphoma. Inhibition of this signaling cascade with the pan-class I PI3K inhibitor NVP-BKM120 decreased cell proliferation and increased apoptotic cell death. DLBCL proliferation was further decreased if NVP-BKM120-induced autophagy was blocked. Treatment with NVP-BKM120 was associated with an increase of the pro-apoptotic BH3-only proteins Puma and Bim and down-regulation of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-xL and Mcl-1. Translation of Bcl-xL and Mcl-1 is facilitated by cap-dependent mRNA translation, a process that was partially inhibited by NVP-BKM120. Overall, we demonstrated here the potential of NVP-BKM120 for the treatment of DLBCL.

Concurrent inhibition of PI3K and mTORC1/mTORC2 overcomes resistance to rapamycin induced apoptosis by down-regulation of Mcl-1 in mantle cell lymphoma.

Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is an aggressive form of Non-Hodgkin-lymphoma (NHL) with an ongoing need for novel treatments. Apart from the translocation t(11:14), which facilitates constitutive transcription of cyclin D1, additional aberrations are frequently observed in MCL, including a recurrent dysregulation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway. mTOR, a key component of this pathway, is pivotal for the assembly of mTOR complex (mTORC) 1 and 2. Temsirolimus, an analog of the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin, is approved for the treatment of relapsed MCL. Response rates, however, are low and response durations are short. We demonstrate that inhibition of mTORC1 by rapamycin or blocking of mTORC1 and mTORC2 in conjunction with PI3K by NVP-BEZ235 reduces proliferation of MCL cell lines to a similar extent. However, only NVP-BEZ235 is able to sufficiently inhibit the downstream pathway of mTOR and to mediate cell death through activation of the intrinsic apoptosis pathway. Further analysis demonstrated that the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member Mcl-1 plays a central role in regulation of MCL survival. While Mcl-1 protein levels remained unchanged after coculture with rapamycin, they were down-regulated in NVP-BEZ235 treated cells. Furthermore, inhibition of Mcl-1 by the BH3-only mimetic obatoclax or down-regulation of constitutive Mcl-1, but not of Bcl-2 or Bcl-xL, by siRNA facilitated cell death of MCL cells and enhanced NVP-BEZ235's capacity to induce cell death. Our findings may help to lay the foundation for further improvements in the treatment of MCL.

The proteasome inhibitor bortezomib stimulates osteoblastic differentiation of human osteoblast precursors via upregulation of vitamin D receptor signalling.

Interactions of myeloma cells with the bone marrow microenvironment lead to enhanced osteoclast recruitment and impaired osteoblast activity. Recent evidence revealed that the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib stimulates osteoblast differentiation, but the mechanisms are not fully elucidated. We hypothesised that bortezomib could influence osteoblastic differentiation via alteration of vitamin D signalling by blocking the proteasomal degradation of the vitamin D receptor (VDR). This is of clinical importance, as a high rate of vitamin D deficiency was reported in patients with myeloma. We performed cocultures of primary human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) and human osteoblasts (hOBs) with myeloma cells, which resulted in an inhibition of the vitamin D-dependent differentiation of osteoblast precursors. Treatment with bortezomib led to a moderate increase in osteoblastic differentiation markers in hMSCs and hOBs. Importantly, this effect could be strikingly increased when vitamin D was added. Bortezomib led to enhanced nuclear VDR protein levels in hMSCs. Primary hMSCs transfected with a VDR luciferase reporter construct showed a strong increase in VDR signalling with bortezomib. In summary, stimulation of VDR signalling is a mechanism for the bortezomib-induced stimulation of osteoblastic differentiation. The data suggest that supplementation of vitamin D in patients with myeloma treated with bortezomib is crucial for optimal bone formation.

Concurrent inhibition of PI3-kinase and mTOR induces cell death in diffuse large B cell lymphomas, a mechanism involving down regulation of Mcl-1.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling is frequently dysregulated in diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) including the favorable germinal centre B-cell (GCB) and the unfavorable activated B-cell (ABC) subtypes. mTOR promotes cap-dependent translation of proteins, like Mcl-1, through inhibitory phosphorylation of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E binding protein 1 (4EBP1). Inhibition of mTOR by RAD001 reduces proliferation but fails to dephosphorylate 4EBP1 and to induce cell death in either DLBCL subtype. In contrast, concurrent inhibition of PI3K and mTOR with NVP-BEZ235 inhibits proliferation, dephosphorylates 4EBP1, and induces cells death, notably more pronounced in CGB cells. Small RNA interference identifies Mcl-1 as a crucial cell death mediator of both DLBCL subtypes. Inhibition of the PI3K/mTOR/4EBP1 by NVP-BEZ235 results in suppression of the cap-dependent translation initiation complex and concomitant downregulation of Mcl-1 in GCB cell lines. In ABC cell lines, this suppression is possibly compensated by NF-κB- or Pim kinase-mediated signaling.

The mTOR inhibitor everolimus in combination with carboplatin in metastatic breast cancer--a phase I trial.

AIM: Despite advances in the the first- and second-line treatment of metastatic breast cancer, there remains a large unmet need for additional treatment options. As preclinical studies have suggested that combining everolimus with carboplatin may produce higher activity than each drug by itself, we initiated a phase I study of this combination. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients with pre-treated metastatic breast cancer received weekly carboplatin at AUC2 and daily oral everolimus at different dose-levels (level I: 2.5 mg; II: 5 mg; III: 7.5 mg; IV: 10 mg). Three patients were assigned to dose-levels I to III, and six to dose-level IV. The primary end-point was to determine the maximum tolerated dose (MTD). RESULTS: Fifteen patients were recruited to the study. The median number of previous chemotherapies was four (range: 1-11). No dose-limiting toxicity occurred at levels I-III during the first cycle. Based on the pre-determined definition, the maximum planned dose-level IV was selected as the MTD. Patients received a median of four cycles of treatment (range 1-13). Most frequent grade 3 and 4 toxicities included leukopenia, thrombocytopenia and infection. Response rates were as follows: 21% partial response, 43% stable disease, and 36% progressive disease. CONCLUSION: Carboplatin and everolimus is a well-tolerated combination for heavily pre-treated metastatic breast cancer. Everolimus (10 mg/d) and carboplatin (AUC2 weekly) were defined as the MTD. This dose is currently being employed in an ongoing phase II trial.

Metformin and the mTOR inhibitor everolimus (RAD001) sensitize breast cancer cells to the cytotoxic effect of chemotherapeutic drugs in vitro.

AIM: Metformin appears to interfere directly with cell proliferation and apoptosis in cancer cells in a non-insulin-mediated manner. One of the key mechanisms of metformin's action is the activation of adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK). AMPK is linked with the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/ phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN)/protein kinase B (AKT) pathway and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) cascades--all known for being frequently dysregulated in breast cancer. Therefore, simultaneously targeting AMPK through metformin and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway by an mTOR inhibitor could become a therapeutic approach. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anticancer effect of metformin alone and in combination with chemotherapeutic drugs and the mTOR inhibitor RAD001. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The proliferation of breast cancer cells was measured with the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay; and the cell apoptosis with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Gene expression at the protein level was determined by western blot. RESULTS: We tested metformin alone and in combination with RAD001 and/or chemotherapeutic agents (carboplatin, paclitaxel and doxorubicin, respectively) on several human breast cancer cell lines with respect to cell proliferation, apoptosis and autophagy. Metformin alone inhibited cell proliferation and induced apoptosis in different breast cancer cell lines (ERα-positive, HER2-positive, and triple-negative). The cytotoxic effect of metformin was more remarkable in triple-negative breast cancer cell lines than in other cell lines. The cell apoptosis induced by metformin is, at least partly, caspase-dependent and apoptosis inducing factor (AIF)-dependent. Interestingly, we demonstrated that metformin induced cell autophagy. Inhibiting autophagy with chloroquine, enhanced the treatment efficacy of metformin, indicating that autophagy induced by metformin may protect breast cancer cells from apoptosis. We further demonstrated that co-administration of metformin with chemotherapeutic agents and RAD001 intensified the inhibition of cell proliferation. The analysis of cell cycle-regulating proteins cyclin D, cyclin E and p27 by western blot indicated that the synergistic inhibition of G1 phase of the cell cycle by the combination treatment of metformin, chemotherapeutic drugs and/or RAD001 contributed to the synergistic inhibition of cell proliferation. CONCLUSION: Our investigation provides a rationale for the clinical application of metformin within treatment regimens for breast cancer.

The mTOR inhibitor RAD001 sensitizes tumor cells to the cytotoxic effect of carboplatin in breast cancer in vitro.

AIM: The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B(AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway is aberrantly activated in many types of cancer, including breast cancer. It is recognized that breast cancer cells develop resistance to a variety of standard therapies through the activation of this pathway. We hypothesized that targeting this signaling by the mTOR inhibitor RAD001 may potentiate the cytotoxicity of a conventional chemotherapeutic drug, carboplatin, and enhance the treatment efficacy for breast cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cell proliferation was measured with 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay; cell apoptosis with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Flow cytometry was used for the analysis of cell cycle distribution and mitochondrial membrane function. Gene expression at the protein level was determined by Western blot. RESULTS: MTOR inhibitor RAD001 enhanced the sensitivity of breast cancer cells to carboplatin. RAD001 in combination with carboplatin resulted in synergistic inhibition of cell proliferation and caspase-independent apoptosis in these cells. Moreover, in MCF-7 and BT-474 cells, synergistic effects of this combination on G2/M cell cycle arrest and regulation of different molecules responsible for cell cycle transition and apoptosis were observed. The p53 pathway was involved in the synergism of RAD001 and carboplatin on breast cancer cell proliferation and apoptosis, since the synergistic effect was demonstrated in all tested breast cancer cell lines with wild-type p53 and the use of p53 inhibitor partially antagonized the effect of RAD001 and carboplatin on p53 and p21 expression, as well as their inhibitory effect on cell proliferation. However, a synergistic effect of the combination of the two drugs on cell proliferation was observed in two p53-mutated cell lines with high AKT expression, suggesting that an alternative mechanism underlying the observed synergism exists. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that the combination of RAD001 and carboplatin is a promising treatment approach for breast cancer. On the basis of these results, we have initiated a phase I/II clinical trial with the combination of carboplatin and RAD001 in patients with metastatic breast cancer.

Induction of endoplasmic reticulum stress response by TZD18, a novel dual ligand for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha/gamma, in human breast cancer cells.

Previously we reported that the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha/gamma dual ligand TZD18 inhibited growth and induced apoptosis of leukemia and glioblastoma cells. Now we show that TZD18 also has the same effects against six human breast cancer cell lines. To obtain insights into the mechanism involved in TZD18-induced growth inhibition and apoptosis in breast cancer, the gene expression profiles of TZD18-treated and untreated MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells were compared by microarray analysis. Results reveal that many genes implicated in endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling, such as CHOP (also known as DDIT3 or GADD153), GRP78 (HSPA5), and ATF4, are highly up-regulated, suggesting endoplasmic reticulum stress is induced. This is supported by our data that treatment of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells with TZD18 induces phosphorylation of PERK and the alpha subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2alpha), as well as an up-regulation of GRP78 and an activation of ATF6, all of which are specific markers for endoplasmic reticulum stress. Furthermore, this ligand increases the endoplasmic reticulum stress-related cell death-regulators such as CHOP, DR5, GADD34, Bax, and Bak in these cells. Importantly, knockdown of CHOP by small interference RNA antagonizes the TZD18-induced apoptosis, indicating a crucial role of CHOP in the apoptotic process triggered by TZD18. In addition, TZD18 also activates stress-sensitive mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways including p38, ERK, and JNK. The specific inhibitors of these MAPKs attenuated the TZD18-induced growth inhibition in these cells. These results clearly show that activation of these MAPKs is important for TZD18-induced growth inhibition. In summary, TZD18-treatment leads to the activation of endoplasmic reticulum stress response and, subsequently, growth arrest and apoptosis in breast cancer cells.

Compound 48, a novel dual PPAR alpha/gamma ligand, inhibits the growth of human CML cell lines and enhances the anticancer-effects of imatinib.

Compound 48 (C48) is a novel dual ligand for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and gamma (PPAR alpha/gamma). Culture of imatinib-sensitive and -resistant CML cell lines with C48 resulted in a strong growth inhibition which associated with G0/G1 cell cycle arrest. However, it showed no obvious toxicity to normal CD34(+) hematopoietic stem cells. Decrease of pSTATs and pAKT were noticed suggesting that interference of AKT and STATs signaling may be the mechanisms for the effects of PPAR alpha/gamma ligands. Of more clinical importance, this ligand strongly enhanced the anticancer-effects of imatinib. Overall, our data suggest that the PPAR alpha/gamma ligands may have potentials in the treatment of CML in an adjuvant setting either before or after the development of imatinib resistance.

Anti-tumor effect of honokiol alone and in combination with other anti-cancer agents in breast cancer.

Honokiol, an active component isolated and purified from Chinese traditional herb magnolia, was demonstrated to inhibit growth and induce apoptosis of different cancer cell lines such as human leukaemia, colon, and lung cancer cell lines; to attenuate the angiogenic activities of human endothelial cells in vitro; and to efficiently suppress the growth of angiosarcoma in nude mice. In this study, we have demonstrated that treatment of different human breast cancer cell lines with honokiol resulted in a time- and concentration-dependent growth inhibition in both estrogen receptor-positive and -negative breast cancer cell lines, as well as in drug-resistant breast cancer cell lines such as adriamycin-resistant and tamoxifen-resistant cell lines. The inhibition of growth was associated with a G1-phase cell cycle arrest and induction of caspase-dependent apoptosis. The effects of honokiol might be reversely related to the expression level of human epidermal growth receptor 2, (HER-2, also known as erbB2, c-erbB2) since knockdown of her-2 expression by siRNA significantly enhanced the sensitivity of the her-2 over-expressed BT-474 cells to the honokiol-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, inhibition of HER-2 signalling by specific human epidermal growth receptor 1/HER-2 (EGFR/HER-2) kinase inhibitor lapatinib synergistically enhanced the anti-cancer effects of honokiol in her-2 over-expressed breast cancer cells. Finally, we showed that honokiol was able to attenuate the PI3K/Akt/mTOR (Phosphoinositide 3-kinases/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin) signalling by down-regulation of Akt phosphorylation and upregulation of PTEN (Phosphatase and Tensin homolog deleted on chromosome Ten) expression. Combination of honokiol with the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin presented synergistic effects on induction of apoptosis of breast cancer cells. In conclusion, honokiol, either alone or in combination with other therapeutics, could serve as a new, promising approach for breast cancer treatment.

Dual PPARalpha/gamma ligand TZD18 either alone or in combination with imatinib inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis of human CML cell lines.

Despite progress in the treatment of early-stage chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), the accelerated and blastic phases of CML still remain a therapeutic challenge. Persistence of BCR-ABL-positive (bcr-abl(+)) cells or secondary resistance during imatinib therapy frequently occurs. In this study, we investigated the activity of a novel dual ligand specific for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and gamma (PPARalpha/gamma) against CML blast crisis cell lines. Exposure of these cell lines (K562, KU812 and KCL22) to TZD18 resulted in a growth inhibition in a dose- and time-dependent manner. This effect may not be mediated through PPARgamma and PPARalpha activation, since antagonists of PPARgamma and/or PPARalpha could not reverse this inhibition. Western blotting analysis showed that expression of the cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor (CDKI) p27(kip1) was enhanced, whereas levels of cyclin E, cyclin D2 and cyclin dependent kinase 2 (CDK-2) were decreased when these cells were treated with TZD18. Most interestingly, TZD18 synergistically enhanced the antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effect of imatinib. Overall, our findings strongly suggest that either TZD18, either alone or in combination with imatinib may be beneficial for the treatment of CML in myeloid blast crisis.