RvD1 treatment during primary infection modulates memory response increasing viral load during respiratory viral reinfection.

Resolvin D1 (RvD1), which is biosynthesized from essential long-chain fatty acids, is involved in anti-inflammatory activity and modulation of T cell response. Memory CD8+ T cells are important for controlling tumor growth and viral infections. Exacerbated inflammation has been described as impairing memory CD8+ T cell differentiation. This study aimed to verify the effects of RvD1 on memory CD8+ T cells in vitro and in vivo in a respiratory virus infection model. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were treated at different time points with RvD1 and stimulated with anti-CD3/anti-CD28 antibodies. Pre-treatment with RvD1 increases the expansion of memory CD8+ T cells. The IL-12 level, a cytokine described to control memory CD8+ T cells, was reduced with RvD1 pre-treatment. When the mTOR axis was inhibited, the IL-12 levels were restored. In a respiratory virus infection model, Balb/c mice were treated with RvD1 before infection or after 7 days after infection. RvD1 treatment after infection increased the frequency of memory CD8+ T cells in the lung expressing II4, II10, and Ifng. During reinfection, RvD1-treated and RSV-infected mice present a high viral load in the lung and lower antibody response in the serum. Our results show that RvD1 modulates the expansion and phenotype of memory CD8+ T cells but contributed to a non-protective response after RSV reinfection.

DNA Methylation and Immune Memory Response.

The generation of memory is a cardinal feature of the adaptive immune response, involving different factors in a complex process of cellular differentiation. This process is essential for protecting the second encounter with pathogens and is the mechanism by which vaccines work. Epigenetic changes play important roles in the regulation of cell differentiation events. There are three types of epigenetic regulation: DNA methylation, histone modification, and microRNA expression. One of these epigenetic changes, DNA methylation, occurs in cytosine residues, mainly in CpG dinucleotides. This brief review aimed to analyse the literature to verify the involvement of DNA methylation during memory T and B cell development. Several studies have highlighted the importance of the DNA methyltransferases, enzymes that catalyse the methylation of DNA, during memory differentiation, maintenance, and function. The methylation profile within different subsets of naïve activated and memory cells could be an interesting tool to help monitor immune memory response.

March1-dependent modulation of donor MHC II on CD103+ dendritic cells mitigates alloimmunity.

In transplantation, donor dendritic cells (do-DCs) initiate the alloimmune response either by direct interaction with host T cells or by transferring intact donor MHC to host DCs. However, how do-DCs can be targeted for improving allograft survival is still unclear. Here we show CD103+ DCs are the major do-DC subset involved in the acute rejection of murine skin transplants. In the absence of CD103+ do-DCs, less donor MHC-II is carried to host lymph nodes, fewer allogenic T cells are primed and allograft survival is prolonged. Incubation of skin grafts with the anti-inflammatory mycobacterial protein DnaK reduces donor MHC-II on CD103+DCs and prolongs graft survival. This effect is mediated through IL-10-induced March1, which ubiquitinates and decreases MHC-II levels. Importantly, in vitro pre-treatment of human DCs with DnaK reduces their ability to prime alloreactive T cells. Our findings demonstrate a novel therapeutic approach to dampen alloimmunity by targeting donor MHC-II on CD103+DCs.

High IL-1R8 expression in breast tumors promotes tumor growth and contributes to impaired antitumor immunity.

Tumors develop numerous strategies to fine-tune inflammation and avoid detection and eradication by the immune system. The identification of mechanisms leading to local immune dysregulation is critical to improve cancer therapy. We here demonstrate that Interleukin-1 receptor 8 (IL-1R8 - previously known as SIGIRR/TIR8), a negative regulator of Toll-Like and Interleukin-1 Receptor family signaling, is up-regulated during breast epithelial cell transformation and in primary breast tumors. IL-1R8 expression in transformed breast epithelial cells reduced IL-1-dependent NF-κB activation and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, inhibited NK cell activation and favored M2-like macrophage polarization. In a murine breast cancer model (MMTV-neu), IL-1R8-deficiency reduced tumor growth and metastasis and was associated with increased mobilization and activation of immune cells, such as NK cells and CD8+ T cells. Finally, immune-gene signature analysis in clinical specimens revealed that high IL-1R8 expression is associated with impaired innate immune sensing and T-cell exclusion from the tumor microenvironment. Our results indicate that high IL-1R8 expression acts as a novel immunomodulatory mechanism leading to dysregulated immunity with important implications for breast cancer immunotherapy.

IL-10 is required for polarization of macrophages to M2-like phenotype by mycobacterial DnaK (heat shock protein 70).

Macrophages are key cells in the innate immune system. They phagocytose pathogens and cellular debris, promote inflammation, and have important roles in tumor immunity. Depending on the microenvironment, macrophages can polarize to M1 (inflammatory) or M2 (anti-inflammatory) phenotypes. Extracellular DnaK (the bacterial ortholog of the mammalian Hsp70) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) was described to exert immune modulatory roles in an IL-10 dependent manner. We have previously observed that endotoxin-free DnaK can polarize macrophages to an M2-like phenotype. However, the mechanisms that underlie this polarization need to be further investigated. IL-10 has been described to promote macrophage polarization, so we investigated the involvement of this cytokine in macrophages stimulated with extracellular DnaK. IL-10 was required to induce the expression of M2 markers - Ym1 and Fizz, when macrophages were treated with DnaK. Blockade of IL-10R also impaired DnaK induced polarization, demonstrating the requirement of the IL-10/IL-10R signaling pathway in this polarization. DnaK was able to induce TGF-ß mRNA in treated macrophages in an IL-10 dependent manner. However, protein TGF-ß could not be detected in culture supernatants. Finally, using an in vivo allogeneic melanoma model, we observed that DnaK-treated macrophages can promote tumor growth in an IL-10-dependent manner. Our results indicate that the IL-10/IL-10R axis is required for DnaK-induced M2-like polarization in murine macrophages.

Extracellular mycobacterial DnaK polarizes macrophages to the M2-like phenotype.

Macrophages are myeloid cells that play an essential role in inflammation and host defense, regulating immune responses and maintaining tissue homeostasis. Depending on the microenvironment, macrophages can polarize to two distinct phenotypes. The M1 phenotype is activated by IFN-γ and bacterial products, and displays an inflammatory profile, while M2 macrophages are activated by IL-4 and tend to be anti-inflammatory or immunosupressive. It was observed that DnaK from Mycobacterium tuberculosis has immunosuppressive properties, inducing a tolerogenic phenotype in dendritic cells and MDSCs, contributing to graft acceptance and tumor growth. However, its role in macrophage polarization remains to be elucidated. We asked whether DnaK was able to modulate macrophage phenotype. Murine macrophages, derived from bone marrow, or from the peritoneum, were incubated with DnaK and their phenotype compared to M1 or M2 polarized macrophages. Treatment with DnaK leads macrophages to present higher arginase I activity, IL-10 production and FIZZ1 and Ym1 expression. Furthermore, DnaK increased surface levels of CD206. Importantly, DnaK-treated macrophages were able to promote tumor growth in an allogeneic melanoma model. Our results suggest that DnaK polarizes macrophages to the M2-like phenotype and could constitute a virulence factor and is an important immunomodulator of macrophage responses.

Mesenchymal stem cells from different murine tissues have differential capacity to metabolize extracellular nucleotides.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have shown a great potential for cell-based therapy and many different therapeutic purposes. Despite the recent advances in the knowledge of MSCs biology, their biochemical and molecular properties are still poorly defined. Ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases (E-NTPDases) and ecto-5'-nucleotidase (eNT/CD73) are widely expressed enzymes that hydrolyze extracellular nucleotides, generating an important cellular signaling cascade. Currently, studies have evidenced the relationship between the purinergic system and the development, maintenance, and differentiation of stem cells. The objective of this study is to identify the NTPDases and eNT/CD73 and compare the levels of nucleotide hydrolysis on MSCs isolated from different murine tissues (bone marrow, lung, vena cava, kidney, pancreas, spleen, skin, and adipose tissue). MSCs from all tissues investigated expressed the ectoenzymes at different levels. In MSCs from pancreas and adipose tissue, the hydrolysis of triphosphonucleosides was significantly higher when compared to the other cells. The diphosphonucleosides were hydrolyzed at a higher rate by MSC from pancreas when compared to MSC from other tissues. The differential nucleotide hydrolysis activity and enzyme expression in these cells suggests that MSCs play different roles in regulating the purinergic system in these tissues. Overall MSCs are an attractive adult-derived cell population for therapies, however, the fact that ecto-nucleotide metabolism can affect the microenvironment, modulating important events, such as immune response, makes the assessment of this metabolism an important part of the characterization of MSCs to be applied therapeutically.

Implication of purinergic P2X7 receptor in M. tuberculosis infection and host interaction mechanisms: a mouse model study.

In the present study, we analyzed the role of purinergic P2X7 receptor in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and host interaction mechanisms in vitro and in vivo. For experimental procedures, a macrophage murine cell line RAW 264.7, and male Swiss, wild-type C57BL/6 and P2X7 receptor knockout (P2X7R−/−) mice were used throughout this study. We have demonstrated that treatment of RAW 264.7 cells with ATP (3 and 5 mM) resulted in a statistically significant reduction of M. tuberculosis-colony-forming units. The purinergic P2X7 receptor expression was found significantly augmented in the lungs of mice infected with M. tuberculosis H37Rv. Infected wild-type mice showed a marked increase in the spleen weight, in comparison to non-infected animals. Furthermore, M. tuberculosis-infected P2X7R−/− mice showed an increase of M. tuberculosis burden in lung tissue, when compared to infected wild-type mice. In P2X7R−/− spleens, we observed a significant decrease in the populations of Treg (CD4+Foxp3+), T cells (CD4+, CD8+CD25+ and CD4+CD25+), dendritic cells (CD11c+) and B220+ cells. However, a significant increase in CD11b+ cells was observed in P2X7R−/− mice, when compared to wild-type animals. In the lungs, P2X7R−/− M. tuberculosisinfected mice exhibited pulmonary infiltrates containing an increase of Treg cells (CD4+Foxp3+), T cells (CD4+ and CD8+) and a decrease in the B220+ cells, when compared with wild-type M. tuberculosis-infected mice. The findings observed in the present study provide novel evidence on the role of P2X7 receptors in the pathogenesis of tuberculosis.

P2X7 receptor is required for neutrophil accumulation in a mouse model of irritant contact dermatitis.

Irritant contact dermatitis (ICD) is an inflammatory reaction caused by chemical toxicity on the skin. The P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) is a key mediator of cytokine release, which recruits immune cells to sites of inflammation. We investigated the role of P2X7R in croton oil (CrO)-induced ICD using in vitro and in vivo approaches. ICD was induced in vivo by CrO application on the mouse ear and in vitro by incubation of murine macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) with CrO and ATP. Infiltrating cells were identified by flow cytometry, histology and myeloperoxidase (MPO) determination. Effects of the ATP scavenger apyrase were assessed to investigate further the role of P2X7R in ICD. Animals were also treated with N-1330, a caspase-1 inhibitor, or with clodronate, which induces macrophage apoptosis. CrO application induced severe inflammatory Gr1(+) cell infiltration and increased MPO levels in the mouse ear. Selective P2X7R antagonism with A438079 or genetic P2X7R deletion reduced the neutrophil infiltration. Clodronate administration significantly reduced Gr1(+) cell infiltration and local IL-1ß levels. In vitro experiments confirmed that A438079 or apyrase treatment prevented the increase in IL-1ß that was evoked by macrophage and DC incubation with CrO and ATP. These data support a key role for P2X7 in ICD-mediated inflammation via modulation of inflammatory cells. It is tempting to suggest that P2X7R inhibition might be an alternative ICD treatment.

Altered responsiveness to extracellular ATP enhances acetaminophen hepatotoxicity.

BACKGROUND: Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is secreted from hepatocytes under physiological conditions and plays an important role in liver biology through the activation of P2 receptors. Conversely, higher extracellular ATP concentrations, as observed during necrosis, trigger inflammatory responses that contribute to the progression of liver injury. Impaired calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis is a hallmark of acetaminophen (APAP)-induced hepatotoxicity, and since ATP induces mobilization of the intracellular Ca2+ stocks, we evaluated if the release of ATP during APAP-induced necrosis could directly contribute to hepatocyte death. RESULTS: APAP overdose resulted in liver necrosis, massive neutrophil infiltration and large non-perfused areas, as well as remote lung inflammation. In the liver, these effects were significantly abrogated after ATP metabolism by apyrase or P2X receptors blockage, but none of the treatments prevented remote lung inflammation, suggesting a confined local contribution of purinergic signaling into liver environment. In vitro, APAP administration to primary mouse hepatocytes and also HepG2 cells caused cell death in a dose-dependent manner. Interestingly, exposure of HepG2 cells to APAP elicited significant release of ATP to the supernatant in levels that were high enough to promote direct cytotoxicity to healthy primary hepatocytes or HepG2 cells. In agreement to our in vivo results, apyrase treatment or blockage of P2 receptors reduced APAP cytotoxicity. Likewise, ATP exposure caused significant higher intracellular Ca2+ signal in APAP-treated primary hepatocytes, which was reproduced in HepG2 cells. Quantitative real time PCR showed that APAP-challenged HepG2 cells expressed higher levels of several purinergic receptors, which may explain the hypersensitivity to extracellular ATP. This phenotype was confirmed in humans analyzing liver biopsies from patients diagnosed with acute hepatic failure. CONCLUSION: We suggest that under pathological conditions, ATP may act not only an immune system activator, but also as a paracrine direct cytotoxic DAMP through the dysregulation of Ca2+ homeostasis.

Evidence for the analgesic activity of resveratrol in acute models of nociception in mice.

The effects of trans-resveratrol (1) were evaluated in acute nociception models induced by capsaicin or glutamate in mice, in an attempt to further characterize its mechanism of action. The oral administration of 1 (50 and 100 mg/kg) reduced significantly the licking behavior elicited by capsaicin (1.6 µg/paw) or glutamate (10 µmol/paw). The co-administration of 1 into the mouse paw (200 µg/site) markedly prevented glutamate-induced licking, without affecting capsaicin responses. In addition, the intrathecal (it) injection of 1 (150 to 600 µg/site) greatly reduced the licking behavior caused by capsaicin, but not glutamate. Similarly, the intracerebroventricular injection of 1 (300 µg/site) caused a potent inhibition of capsaicin-induced nociception, while the glutamate responses remained unaffected. However, the co-administration of 1 (300 µg/site) reduced the biting behavior induced by spinal injection of glutamate (30 µg/site, it), leaving capsaicin (6.4 µg/site)-induced biting unaltered. Notably, the oral administration of 1 (100 mg/kg) inhibited significantly the capsaicin-induced increase of c-Fos and COX-2 labeling in the spinal cord and COX-2 expression in the cortex, but failed to affect c-Fos and COX-2 expression in the glutamate model. This study has explored the effects of 1 in both the capsaicin and glutamate models, extending current knowledge on the analgesic effects of trans-resveratrol.

Activity of novel quinoxaline-derived chalcones on in vitro glioma cell proliferation.

Gliomas are the most common and devastating tumors of the central nervous system (CNS). Many pieces of evidence point out the relevance of natural compounds for cancer therapy and prevention, including chalcones. In the present study, eight synthetic quinoxaline-derived chalcones, structurally based on the selective PI3Kγ inhibitor AS605240, were evaluated for anti-proliferative activity and viability inhibition using glioma cell lines from human and rat origin (U-138 MG and C6, respectively), at different time-periods of incubation and concentrations. The results revealed that four chalcones (compounds 1, 6, 7 and 8), which present methoxy groups at A-ring, displayed higher efficacies and potencies, being able to inhibit either cell proliferation or viability, in a time- and concentration-dependent manner, with an efficacy that was greater than that seen for the positive control compound AS605240. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated that incubation of C6 cells with compound 6 led to G1 phase arrest, likely indicating an interference with apoptosis. Furthermore, compound 6 was able to visibly inhibit AKT activation, allied to the stimulation of ERK MAP-kinase. The chalcones tested herein, especially those displaying a methoxy substituent, might well represent promising molecules for the adjuvant treatment of glioma progression.

Overexpression of NTPDase2 in gliomas promotes systemic inflammation and pulmonary injury.

Gliomas are the most common and devastating type of primary brain tumor. Many non-neoplastic cells, including immune cells, comprise the tumor microenvironment where they create a milieu that appears to dictate cancer development. ATP and the phosphohydrolytic products ADP and adenosine by activating P2 and P1 receptors may participate in these interactions among malignant and immune cells. Purinergic receptor-mediated cell communication is closely regulated by ectonucleotidases, such as by members of the ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase) family, which hydrolyze extracellular nucleotides. We have shown that gliomas, unlike astrocytes, exhibit low NTPDase activity. Furthermore, ATP induces glioma cell proliferation and the co-administration of apyrase decreases progression of injected cells in vivo. We have previously shown that NTPDase2 reconstitution dramatically increases tumor growth in vivo. Here we evaluated whether NTPDase2 reconstitution to gliomas modulates systemic inflammatory responses. We observed that NTPDase2 overexpression modulated pro-inflammatory cytokine production and platelet reactivity. Additionally, pathological alterations in the lungs were observed in rats bearing these tumors. Our results suggest that disruption of purinergic signaling via ADP accumulation creates an inflammatory state that may promote tumor spread and dictate clinical progression.

Oxidative stress and delta-ALA-D activity in chronic renal failure patients.

In this paper, we studied the influence of uremia and hemodialysis on oxidative parameters and delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (delta-ALA-D) activity in control subjects, patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) on hemodialysis treatment (HD) and in patients not undergoing hemodialysis (ND). An increased lipid peroxidation was observed in the serum of HD and ND patients, as measured by the MDA serum levels. However, the level of MDA from erythrocytes was only elevated in HD patients. Blood catalase activity was increased in HD and ND groups. This study also showed a decreased activity of blood delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (delta-ALA-D) in both groups of patients. This study demonstrated a positive correlation between ALA-D activity and hemoglobin, suggesting that inhibition of this enzyme might enhance anemia in CRF. A negative correlation was found between the alteration in delta-ALA-D activity and oxidative stress, which may indicate that the inhibition of ALA-D can be used as an index of oxidative stress.

Inhibition of two different cholinesterases by tacrine.

Kinetic parameters of the effect of tacrine as a cholinesterase inhibitor have been studied in two different sources: snake venom (Bungarus sindanus) acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and human serum butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). Tacrine inhibited both venom acetylcholinesterase (AChE) as well as human serum butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) in a concentration-dependent manner. Kinetic studies indicated that the nature of inhibition was mixed for both enzymes, i.e. Km values increase and Vmax decrease with the increase of the tacrine concentration. The calculated IC50 for snake venom and for human serum were 31 and 25.6 nM, respectively. Ki was observed to be 13 nM for venom acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and 12 nM for serum butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). KI (constant of AChE-ASCh-tacrine complex into AChE-ASCh complex and tacrine) was estimated to be 20 nM for venom and 10 nM for serum butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), while the gammaKm (dissociation constant of AChE-ASCh-tacrine complex into AChE-tacrine complex and ASCh) were 0.086 and 0.147 mM for snake venom AChE and serum BChE, respectively. The present results suggest that this therapeutic agent used for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease can also be considered an inhibitor of snake venom and human serum butyrylcholinesterase. Values of Ki and KI show that tacrine had more affinity with these enzymes as compared with other cholinesterases from the literature.

Enzymes that hydrolyze adenine nucleotides in chronic renal failure: relationship between hemostatic defects and renal failure severity.

The activities of the enzymes NTPDase (E.C.3.6.1.5, apyrase, ATP diphosphohydrolase, ecto-CD 39) and 5'-nucleotidase (E.C.3.1.3.5, CD 73) were analyzed in platelets from patients with chronic renal failure (CRF), both undergoing hemodialysis treatment (HD) and not undergoing hemodialysis (ND), as well as from a control group. The results showed an increase in platelet NTPDase activity in CRF patients on HD treatment (52.88%) with ATP as substrate (P<0.0001). ADP hydrolysis was decreased (33.68% and 39.75%) in HD and ND patients, respectively. In addition, 5'-nucleotidase activity was elevated in the HD (160%) and ND (81.49%) groups when compared to the control (P<0.0001). Significant correlation was found among ATP, ADP and AMP hydrolysis and plasma creatinine and urea levels (P<0.0001). Patients were compared statistically according the time of hemodialysis treatment. We found enhanced NTPDase and 5'-nucleotidase activities between 49 and 72 months on HD patients. Our result suggests the existence of alterations in nucleotide hydrolysis in platelets of CRF patients. Possibly, this altered nucleotide hydrolysis could contribute to hemostasis abnormalities found in CRF.