Atomic force microscopy in mechanical measurements of single nanowires.

In this paper, we present the results of mechanical measurement of single nanowires (NWs) in a repeatable manner. Substrates with specifically designed mechanical features were used for NW placement and localization for measurements of properties such as Young's modulus or tensile strength of NW with an atomic force microscopy (AFM) system. Dense arrays of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires were obtained by one-step anodic oxidation of metallic Zn foil in a sodium bicarbonate electrolyte and thermal post-treatment. ZnO NWs with a hexagonal wurtzite structure were fixed to the substrates using focused electron beam-induced deposition (FEBID) and were annealed at different temperatures in situ. We show a 10-fold change in the properties of annealed materials as well as a difference in the properties of the NW materials from their bulk values with pre-annealed Young modulus at the level of 20 GPa and annealed reaching 200 GPa. We found the newly developed method to be much more versatile, allowing for in situ operations of NWs, including measurements with different methods of scanning probe microscopy.

Effect of Al Polishing Conditions on the Growth and Morphology of Porous Anodic Alumina Films.

The conditions applied during the electrochemical polishing of aluminum were found to be important parameters for the successive formation of nanoporous alumina films. First, a high-purity Al foil was electrochemically polished in an aqueous solution containing C2H5OH and HClO4 at various sets of conditions, such as applied potential (5-35 V), temperature (0-20 °C), and process duration (10-180 s). Extensive studies of the topography of Al after polishing by scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy allow verification of the correlations between conditions applied during the substrate pretreatment and dimensions of the nanopatterns generated on the metal surface. Next, Al polished samples at two different sets of conditions were used as starting materials for anodization. Unpolished Al samples were also anodized for reference. It was confirmed that electropolishing conditions do not significantly affect the oxide growth rate during anodization and the efficiency of anodic film formation. On the contrary, it was proved that the dimensions of the surface texture formed during Al polishing significantly affect the morphology and pore order within the anodic film. Therefore, it can be stated that it is possible to tune to some extent the arrangement of nanochannels within anodic aluminum oxide films by simply changing conditions during the electropolishing procedure..

Four-Point Measurement Setup for Correlative Microscopy of Nanowires.

The measurement method, which utilizes nanomanipulation of the nanowires onto a specially prepared substrate, was presented. It introduced a four-point resistance measurement setup on a chip suited for scanning probe microscopy measurements, integrating connectors and a nanowire specimen. A study on the resistance and resistivity of the thermally post-treated ZnO nanowires at 200 °C and 300 °C in air showed the dependence of these electrical parameters on the annealing temperature. The investigations of the electrical properties of blocks built on the basis of nanowires and their related devices could provide a useful guide not only for designing, fabricating and optimizing electromechanical nanodevices based on nanowires but also for their safe operation in future electronic applications.

CdS-Decorated Porous Anodic SnOx Photoanodes with Enhanced Performance under Visible Light.

Electrochemically generated nanoporous tin oxide films have already been studied as photoanodes in photoelectrochemical water splitting systems. However, up to now, the most significant drawback of such materials was their relatively wide band gap (ca. 3.0 eV), which limits their effective performance in the UV light range. Therefore, here, we present for the first time an effective strategy for sensitization of porous anodic SnOx films with another narrow band gap semiconductor. Nanoporous tin oxide layers were obtained by simple one-step anodic oxidation of metallic Sn in 1 M NaOH followed by further surface decoration with CdS by the successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR) method. It was found that the nanoporous morphology of as-anodized SnOx is still preserved after CdS deposition. Such SnOx/CdS photoanodes exhibited enhanced photoelectrochemical activity in the visible range compared to unmodified SnOx. However, the thermal treatment at 200 °C before the SILAR process was found to be a key factor responsible for the optimal photoresponse of the material.

Tuning the Photoelectrochemical Properties of Narrow Band Gap Nanoporous Anodic SnOx Films by Simple Soaking in Water.

Nanoporous tin oxide layers obtained via anodic oxidation of metallic tin at the potential of 4 V in the alkaline electrolyte (1 M NaOH) were soaked in distilled water for various durations (from 2 h to 120 h) to verify the influence of water-enabled crystallization on the morphology, composition, and related optical and photoelectrochemical properties of such kind of anodic SnOx. Although water soaking generally contributes to more stoichiometric and crystalline tin oxide, it was confirmed that at the initial stages of the water-induced dissolution-redeposition process, material exhibits enhanced photoelectrochemical performance under simulated sunlight irradiation. However, long-time exposure to water results in a gradual widening of the material's band gap, shifting of the photoelectrochemical spectra towards higher energies, and almost complete deterioration of the photoelectrochemical activity under sunlight irradiation.

Materials characterization of TiO2 nanotubes decorated by Au nanoparticles for photoelectrochemical applications.

The structural and chemical modification of TiO2 nanotubes (NTs) by the deposition of a well-controlled Au deposit was investigated using a combination of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM), Raman measurements, UV-Vis spectroscopy and photoelectrochemical investigations. The fabrication of the materials focused on two important factors: the deposition of Au nanoparticles (NPs) in UHV (ultra high vacuum) conditions (1-2 × 10-8 mbar) on TiO2 nanotubes (NTs) having a diameter of ∼110 nm, and modifying the electronic interaction between the TiO2 NTs and Au nanoparticles (NPs) with an average diameter of about 5 nm through the synergistic effects of SMSI (Strong Metal Support Interaction) and LSPR (Local Surface Plasmon Resonance). Due to the formation of unique places in the form of "hot spots", the proposed nanostructures proved to be photoactive in the UV-Vis range, where a characteristic gold plasmonic peak was observed at a wavelength of 580 nm. The photocurrent density of Au deposited TiO2 NTs annealed at 650 °C was found to be much greater (14.7 µA cm-2) than the corresponding value (∼0.2 µA cm-2) for nanotubes in the as-received state. The IPCE (incident photon current efficiency) spectral evidence also indicates an enhancement of the photoconversion of TiO2 NTs due to Au NP deposition without any significant change in the band gap energy of the titanium dioxide (E g ∼3.0 eV). This suggests that a plasmon-induced resonant energy transfer (PRET) was the dominant effect responsible for the photoactivity of the obtained materials.

Improving Photoelectrochemical Properties of Anodic WO3 Layers by Optimizing Electrosynthesis Conditions.

Although anodic tungsten oxide has attracted increasing attention in recent years, there is still a lack of detailed studies on the photoelectrochemical (PEC) properties of such kind of materials grown in different electrolytes under various sets of conditions. In addition, the morphology of photoanode is not a single factor responsible for its PEC performance. Therefore, the attempt was to correlate different anodizing conditions (especially electrolyte composition) with the surface morphology, oxide thickness, semiconducting, and photoelectrochemical properties of anodized oxide layers. As expected, the surface morphology of WO3 depends strongly on anodizing conditions. Annealing of as-synthesized tungsten oxide layers at 500 °C for 2 h leads to obtaining a monoclinic WO3 phase in all cases. From the Mott-Schottky analysis, it has been confirmed that all as prepared anodic oxide samples are n-type semiconductors. Band gap energy values estimated from incident photon-to-current efficiency (IPCE) measurements neither differ significantly for as-synthesized WO3 layers nor depend on anodizing conditions such as electrolyte composition, time and applied potential. Although the estimated band gaps are similar, photoelectrochemical properties are different because of many different reasons, including the layer morphology (homogeneity, porosity, pore size, active surface area), oxide layer thickness, and semiconducting properties of the material, which depend on the electrolyte composition used for anodization.

Hierarchical Nanoporous Sn/SnOx Systems Obtained by Anodic Oxidation of Electrochemically Deposited Sn Nanofoams.

A simple two-step electrochemical method for the fabrication of a new type of hierarchical Sn/SnOx micro/nanostructures is proposed for the very first time. Firstly, porous metallic Sn foams are grown on Sn foil via hydrogen bubble-assisted electrodeposition from an acidulated tin chloride electrolyte. As-obtained metallic foams consist of randomly distributed dendrites grown uniformly on the entire metal surface. The estimated value of pore diameter near the surface is ~35 µm, while voids with a diameter of ~15 µm appear in a deeper part of the deposit. Secondly, a layer of amorphous nanoporous tin oxide (with a pore diameter of ~60 nm) is generated on the metal surface by its anodic oxidation in an alkaline electrolyte (1 M NaOH) at the potential of 4 V for various durations. It is confirmed that if only optimal conditions are applied, the dendritic morphology of the metal foam does not change significantly, and an open-porous structure is still preserved after anodization. Such kinds of hierarchical nanoporous Sn/SnOx systems are superhydrophilic, contrary to those obtained by thermal oxidation of metal foams which are hydrophobic. Finally, the photoelectrochemical activity of the nanostructured metal/metal oxide electrodes is also presented.

Electrochemical Oxidation of Ti15Mo Alloy-The Impact of Anodization Parameters on Surface Morphology of Nanostructured Oxide Layers.

It is well-known that the structure and composition of the material plays an important role in the processes occurring at the surface. In this paper, a surface morphology of nanostructured oxide layers electrochemically grown on Ti15Mo, tuned by applying different anodization parameters, was investigated in detail. The one-step anodization of Ti15Mo alloy was performed at room temperature in an ethylene glycol-based electrolyte containing 0.11 M NH4F and 1.11 M H2O. Different anodization times (ranging from 5 to 60 min) and applied potentials (40-100 V) were tested, and the surface morphology, elemental content, and crystalline structure were monitored by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS), and X-ray diffractometry (XRD), respectively. The results showed that contrary to the multistep anodization of titanium foil, the surface morphology of anodic oxide obtained via the one-step process contains the nanoporous outer layer covering the nanotubular structure. What is more, the pore diameter (Dp) and interpore distance (Dint) of such layers exhibit different trends than those observed for anodization of pure titanium. In particular, at a certain potential range, a decrease in both Dp and Dint with increasing potential was observed. However, independently on the used anodization conditions, the elemental content of oxide layers remained similar, showing the amount of molybdenum at c.a. 15 wt.%. Finally, the amorphous nature of as-anodized layers was confirmed, and their optical band-gap was determined from the diffuse reflectance UV-Vis spectra. It was found that Eg is tunable to some extent by changing the anodizing potential. However, further thermal treatment in air at 400 °C resulted in the anatase phase formation that was accompanied by a significant Eg reduction. Therefore, we believe that the presented results will greatly contribute to the understanding of anodic formation of nanostructured functional oxide layers with tunable properties that can be applied in various fields.