Results from the Radiation Assessment Detector on the International Space Station: Part 1, the Charged Particle Detector.

We report the results of the first six years of measurements of the energetic particle radiation environment on the International Space Station (ISS) with the Radiation Assessment Detector (ISS-RAD), spanning the period from February 2016 to February 2022. The first RAD was designed and built for MSL, the Mars Science Laboratory rover, also known as Curiosity; it has been operating on Mars since 2012 and is referred to here as MSL-RAD. ISS-RAD combines two sensor heads, one nearly identical to the single MSL-RAD sensor head, the other with greatly enhanced sensitivity to fast neutrons. These two sensor heads are referred to as the Charged Particle Detector (CPD) and Fast Neutron Detector (FND), respectively. Despite its name, the CPD is also capable of measuring high-energy neutrons and γ-rays, as is MSL-RAD. ISS-RAD was flown to the ISS in December 2015 and was deployed in February 2016, initially in the USLab module. RAD was used as a survey instrument from January 2017 through May 2020, when the instrument was positioned in the USLab and set to a zenith-pointing orientation. The energetic particle environment on the ISS is complex and varies on short time scales owing to the orbit, which has a 51.6∘ inclination with respect to the equator and has had an altitude in the 400-440 km range in this time period. The ISS moves continuously through the geomagnetic field, the strength of which varies with latitude, longitude, and altitude. The orbit passes through the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) several times a day, where magnetically trapped protons and electrons produce large but transient increases in observed fluxes and absorbed dose rates. The environment inside the ISS is affected by the solar cycle, altitude, and the local shielding, which varies between different ISS modules. We report results for charged particle absorbed dose and dose equivalent rates in various positions in the ISS. In an accompanying paper, we report similar results for neutron dose equivalent rates obtained with the ISS-RAD Fast Neutron Detector.

Results from the Radiation Assessment Detector on the International Space Station, Part 2: The fast neutron detector.

We report the results of the first six years of measurements of so-called fast neutrons on the International Space Station (ISS) with the Radiation Assessment Detector (ISS-RAD), spanning the period from February 2016 to February 2022. ISS-RAD combines two sensor heads, one nearly identical to the single sensor head in the Mars Science Laboratory RAD (MSL-RAD). The latter is described in a companion article to this one. The novel sensor is the FND, or fast neutron detector, designed to measure neutrons with energies in the range from 200 keV to about 8 MeV. ISS-RAD was deployed in February 2016 in the USLAB module, and then served as a survey instrument from March 2017 until May 2020. Data were acquired in Node3, the Japanese Pressurized Module, Columbus, and Node2. At the conclusion of the survey portion of RAD's planned 10-year campaign on ISS, the instrument was stationed in the USLAB; current plans call for it to remain there indefinitely. The radiation environment on the ISS consists of a complex mix of charged and neutral particles that varies on short time scales owing to the Station's orbit. Neutral particles, and neutrons in particular, are of concern from a radiation protection viewpoint, because they are both highly penetrating (since they do not lose energy via direct ionization) and, at some energies, have high biological effectiveness. Neutrons are copiously produced by GCRs and other incident energetic particles when they undergo nuclear interactions in shielding. As different ISS modules have varying amounts of shielding, they also have varying neutron environments. We report results for neutron fluences and dose equivalent rates in various positions in the ISS.

Results from the Radiation Assessment Detector on the International Space Station: Part 3, combined results from the CPD and FND.

The energetic particle radiation environment on the International Space Station (ISS) includes both charged and neutral particles. Here, we make use of the unique capabilities of the Radiation Assessment Detector (ISS-RAD) to measure both of these components simultaneously. The Charged Particle Detector (CPD) is, despite its name, capable of measuring neutrons in the energy range from about 4 MeV to a few hundred MeV. Combined with data from the Fast Neutron Detector (FND) in the 0.2 to 8 MeV range, we present the first broad-spectrum measurements of the neutron environments in various locations within the ISS since an early Bonner-Ball experiment that was conducted before the Station was fully constructed. The data presented here span the time period from February 2016 to February 2022. In addition to presenting broad-spectrum neutron fluence measurements, we show correlations of the measured neutron dose equivalent with charged-particle dose rates. The ratio of charged-particle dose to neutron dose equivalent is found to be relatively stable within the ISS.

Observations of neutron radiation environment during Odyssey cruise to Mars.

In April 2001, Mars Odyssey spacecraft with the High Energy Neutron Detector (HEND) onboard was launched to Mars. HEND/Odyssey was switched on measurement mode for most of transit to Mars to monitor variations of spacecraft background and solar activity. Although HEND/Odyssey was originally designed to measure Martian neutron albedo and to search for Martian subsurface water/water ice, its measurements during cruise phase to Mars are applicable to evaluate spacecraft ambient radiation background. The biological impact of the neutron component of this radiation background should be understood, as it must be taken into account in planning future human missions to Mars. We have modeled the spacecraft neutron spectral density and compared it with HEND measurements to estimate neutron dose equivalent rates during Odyssey cruise phase, which occurred during the maximum period of solar cycle 23. We find that the Odyssey ambient neutron environment during May - September 2001 yields 10.6 ± 2.0 µSv per day in the energy range from 0 to 15 MeV, and about 29 µSv per day when extrapolated to the 0-1000 MeV energy range during solar quiet time (intervals without Solar Particle Events, SPEs). We have also extrapolated HEND/Odyssey measurements to different periods of solar cycle and find that during solar minimum (maximum of GCR flux), the neutron dose equivalent rate during cruise to Mars could be as high as 52 µSv per day with the same shielding. These values are in good agreement with results reported for a similar measurement made with an instrument aboard the Mars Science Laboratory during its cruise to Mars in 2011-2012.

Measurements of radiation quality factor on Mars with the Mars Science Laboratory Radiation Assessment Detector.

We report the first long-term measurements of the radiation quality factor of energetic charged particles on the surface of Mars. The Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) aboard the Mars Science Laboratory rover, also known as Curiosity, has been operating on Mars since 2012. RAD contains thin silicon detectors that record the ionization energy loss of energetic charged particles. The particles are dominantly galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) and the products of their interactions in the Martian atmosphere, with occasional contributions from solar energetic particles (SEPs). The quality factor on the surface of Mars is influenced by two factors: variations in the shielding provided by the atmosphere, and changes in the spectrum of the incident energetic particle flux due to the 11-year solar cycle. The two cannot be easily disentangled using the data alone, but insights can be gained from calculations and Monte Carlo simulations.

Twenty years of space radiation physics at the BNL AGS and NASA Space Radiation Laboratory.

Highly ionizing atomic nuclei HZE in the GCR will be a significant source of radiation exposure for humans on extended missions outside low Earth orbit. Accelerators such as the LBNL Bevalac and the BNL AGS, designed decades ago for fundamental nuclear and particle physics research, subsequently found use as sources of GCR-like particles for ground-based physics and biology research relevant to space flight. The NASA Space Radiation Laboratory at BNL was constructed specifically for space radiation research. Here we review some of the space-related physics results obtained over the first 20 years of NASA-sponsored research at Brookhaven.

Measurements of the neutron spectrum in transit to Mars on the Mars Science Laboratory.

The Mars Science Laboratory spacecraft, containing the Curiosity rover, was launched to Mars on 26 November 2011. Although designed for measuring the radiation on the surface of Mars, the Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) measured the radiation environment inside the spacecraft during most of the 253-day, 560-million-kilometer cruise to Mars. An important factor for determining the biological impact of the radiation environment inside the spacecraft is the specific contribution of neutrons with their high biological effectiveness. We apply an inversion method (based on a maximum-likelihood estimation) to calculate the neutron and gamma spectra from the RAD neutral particle measurements. The measured neutron spectrum (12-436 MeV) translates into a radiation dose rate of 3.8±1.2 µGy/day and a dose equivalent of 19±5 µSv/day. Extrapolating the measured spectrum (0.1-1000 MeV), we find that the total neutron-induced dose rate is 6±2 µGy/day and the dose equivalent rate is 30±10 µSv/day. For a 360 day round-trip from Earth to Mars with comparable shielding, this translates into a neutron induced dose equivalent of about 11±4 mSv.

Measurements of energetic particle radiation in transit to Mars on the Mars Science Laboratory.

The Mars Science Laboratory spacecraft, containing the Curiosity rover, was launched to Mars on 26 November 2011, and for most of the 253-day, 560-million-kilometer cruise to Mars, the Radiation Assessment Detector made detailed measurements of the energetic particle radiation environment inside the spacecraft. These data provide insights into the radiation hazards that would be associated with a human mission to Mars. We report measurements of the radiation dose, dose equivalent, and linear energy transfer spectra. The dose equivalent for even the shortest round-trip with current propulsion systems and comparable shielding is found to be 0.66 ± 0.12 sievert.

Validation of the HZETRN code for laboratory exposures with 1A GeV iron ions in several targets.

A new version of the HZETRN code capable of validation with HZE ions in either the laboratory or the space environment is under development. The computational model consists of the lowest order asymptotic approximation followed by a Neumann series expansion with non-perturbative corrections. The physical description includes energy loss with straggling, nuclear attenuation, nuclear fragmentation with energy dispersion and downshift. Measurements to test the model were performed at the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron and the NASA Space Radiation Laboratory at Brookhaven National Laboratory with iron ions. Surviving beam particles and produced fragments were measured with solid-state detectors. Beam analysis software has been written to relate the computational results to the measured energy loss spectra of the incident ions for rapid validation of modeled target transmission functions.

Fragmentation of 1 GeV/nucleon iron ions in thick targets relevant for space exploration.

We have measured charged nuclear fragments produced by 1 GeV/nucleon 56Fe ions interacting with aluminium, polyethylene and lead. These materials are relevant for assessment of radiation risk for manned space flight. The data will be presented in a form suitable for comparison with models of nuclear fragmentation and transport, including linear energy transfer (LET) spectrum, fluence for iron and fragments, event-tack- and event-dose-averaged LET, total dose and iron contribution to dose.

Shielding and fragmentation studies.

Radiation dosimetry for manned spaced missions depends on the ability to adequately describe the process of high-energy ion transport through many materials. Since the types of possible nuclear interactions are many and complex, transport models are used which depend upon a reliable source of experimental data. To expand the heavy ion database used in the models we have been measuring charge-changing cross sections and fragment production cross sections from heavy-ion interactions in various elementa targets. These include materials flown on space missions such as carbon and aluminium, as well as those important in radiation dosimetry such as hydrogen, nitrogen and water. Measuring heavy-ion fragmentation through these targets also gives us the ability to determine the effectiveness of new materials proposed for shielding such as graphite composites and polyethylene hybrids. Measurement without a target present gives an indication of the level of contamination of the primary beam, which is also important in radiobiology experiments.

Comparisons of LET distributions for protons with energies between 50 and 200 MeV determined using a spherical tissue-equivalent proportional counter (TEPC) and a position-sensitive silicon spectrometer (RRMD-III).

Experiments have been performed to measure the response of a spherical tissue-equivalent proportional counter (TEPC) and a silicon-based LET spectrometer (RRMD-III) to protons with energies ranging from 50-200 MeV. This represents a large portion of the energy distribution for trapped protons encountered by astronauts in low-Earth orbit. The beam energies were obtained using plastic polycarbonate degraders with a monoenergetic beam that was extracted from a proton synchrotron. The LET spectrometer provided excellent agreement with the expected LET distribution emerging from the energy degraders. The TEPC cannot measure the LET distribution directly. However, the frequency mean value of lineal energy, y(-)(f), provided a good approximation to LET. This is in contrast to previous results for high-energy heavy ions where y(-)(f) underestimated LET, whereas the dose-averaged lineal energy, y(-)(D), provided a good approximation to LET.

Overview of the Martian radiation environment experiment.

Space radiation presents a hazard to astronauts, particularly those journeying outside the protective influence of the geomagnetosphere. Crews on future missions to Mars will be exposed to the harsh radiation environment of deep space during the transit between Earth and Mars. Once on Mars, they will encounter radiation that is only slightly reduced, compared to free space, by the thin Martian atmosphere. NASA is obliged to minimize, where possible, the radiation exposures received by astronauts. Thus, as a precursor to eventual human exploration, it is necessary to measure the Martian radiation environment in detail. The MARIE experiment, aboard the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft, is returning the first data that bear directly on this problem. Here we provide an overview of the experiment, including introductory material on space radiation and radiation dosimetry, a description of the detector, model predictions of the radiation environment at Mars, and preliminary dose-rate data obtained at Mars.

Heavy ion observations by MARIE in cruise phase and Mars orbit.

The charged particle spectrum for nuclei from protons to neon, (charge Z=10) was observed during the cruise phase and orbit around Mars by the MARIE charged particle spectrometer on the Odyssey spacecraft. The cruise data were taken between April 23, 2001 and mid-August 2001. The Mars orbit data were taken March 5, 2002 through May 2002 and are scheduled to continue until August 2004. Charge peaks are clearly separated for charges up to Z=10. Especially prominent are the carbon and oxygen peaks, with boron and nitrogen also clearly visible. Although heavy ions are much less abundant than protons in the cosmic ray environment, it is important to determine their abundances because their ionization energy losses (proportional to Z2) are far more dangerous to humans and to instruments. Thus the higher charged nuclei make a significant contribution to dose and dose equivalent received in space. Results of the charged particle spectrum measurements will be reported.

A space radiation shielding model of the Martian radiation environment experiment (MARIE).

The 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft was launched towards Mars on April 7, 2001. Onboard the spacecraft is the Martian radiation environment experiment (MARIE), which is designed to measure the background radiation environment due to galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar protons in the 20-500 MeV/n energy range. We present an approach for developing a space radiation-shielding model of the spacecraft that includes the MARIE instrument in the current mapping phase orientation. A discussion is presented describing the development and methodology used to construct the shielding model. For a given GCR model environment, using the current MARIE shielding model and the high-energy particle transport codes, dose rate values are compared with MARIE measurements during the early mapping phase in Mars orbit. The results show good agreement between the model calculations and the MARIE measurements as presented for the March 2002 dataset.

Benchmark studies of the effectiveness of structural and internal materials as radiation shielding for the international space station.

Accelerator-based measurements and model calculations have been used to study the heavy-ion radiation transport properties of materials in use on the International Space Station (ISS). Samples of the ISS aluminum outer hull were augmented with various configurations of internal wall material and polyethylene. The materials were bombarded with high-energy iron ions characteristic of a significant part of the galactic cosmic-ray (GCR) heavy-ion spectrum. Transmitted primary ions and charged fragments produced in nuclear collisions in the materials were measured near the beam axis, and a model was used to extrapolate from the data to lower beam energies and to a lighter ion. For the materials and ions studied, at incident particle energies from 1037 MeV/nucleon down to at least 600 MeV/nucleon, nuclear fragmentation reduces the average dose and dose equivalent per incident ion. At energies below 400 MeV/nucleon, the calculation predicts that as material is added, increased ionization energy loss produces increases in some dosimetric quantities. These limited results suggest that the addition of modest amounts of polyethylene or similar material to the interior of the ISS will reduce the dose to ISS crews from space radiation; however, the radiation transport properties of ISS materials should be evaluated with a realistic space radiation field.

The response of a spherical tissue-equivalent proportional counter to iron particles from 200-1000 MeV/nucleon.

The radiation environment on board the space shuttle and the International Space Station includes high-Z and high-energy (HZE) particles that are part of the galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) spectrum. Iron-56 particles are considered to be one of the most biologically important parts of the GCR spectrum. Tissue-equivalent proportional counters (TEPCs) are used as active dosimeters on manned space flights. These TEPCs are further used to determine the average quality factor for each space mission. A TEPC simulating a 1-microm-diameter sphere of tissue was exposed as part of a particle spectrometer to (56)Fe particles at energies from 200-1000 MeV/nucleon. The response of TEPCs in terms of mean lineal energy, y(F), and dose mean lineal energy, y(D), as well as the energy deposited at different impact parameters through the detector was determined for six different incident energies of (56)Fe particles in this energy range. Calculations determined that charged-particle equilibrium was achieved for each of the six experiments. Energy depositions at different impact parameters were calculated using a radial dose distribution model, and the results were compared to experimental data.

Monte Carlo transport model comparison with 1A GeV accelerated iron experiment: heavy-ion shielding evaluation of NASA space flight-crew foodstuff.

Deep-space manned flight as a reality depends on a viable solution to the radiation problem. Both acute and chronic radiation health threats are known to exist, with solar particle events as an example of the former and galactic cosmic rays (GCR) of the latter. In this experiment Iron ions of 1A GeV are used to simulate GCR and to determine the secondary radiation field created as the GCR-like particles interact with a thick target. A NASA prepared food pantry locker was subjected to the iron beam and the secondary fluence recorded. A modified version of the Monte Carlo heavy ion transport code developed by Zeitlin at LBNL is compared with experimental fluence. The foodstuff is modeled as mixed nuts as defined by the 71st edition of the Chemical Rubber Company (CRC) Handbook of Physics and Chemistry. The results indicate a good agreement between the experimental data and the model. The agreement between model and experiment is determined using a linear fit to ordered pairs of data. The intercept is forced to zero. The slope fit is 0.825 and the R2 value is 0.429 over the resolved fluence region. The removal of an outlier, Z=14, gives values of 0.888 and 0.705 for slope and R2 respectively.

Issues in deep space radiation protection.

The exposures in deep space are largely from the Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR) for which there is as yet little biological experience. Mounting evidence indicates that conventional linear energy transfer (LET) defined protection quantities (quality factors) may not be appropriate for GCR ions. The available biological data indicates that aluminum alloy structures may generate inherently unhealthy internal spacecraft environments in the thickness range for space applications. Methods for optimization of spacecraft shielding and the associated role of materials selection are discussed. One material which may prove to be an important radiation protection material is hydrogenated carbon nanofibers.

Neutron production from polyethylene and common spacecraft materials.

We report experimental measurements of neutron production from collisions of neutron beams with polyethylene blocks simulating tissue at the Los Alamos National Laboratory Neutron Science Center and 1 GeV/amu iron nuclei with spacecraft shielding materials at the Brookhaven National Laboratory AGS.