Perceived Need for a Faith-Based Trauma-Focused Treatment in a Sample of Forcibly Displaced Muslims.

Forcibly displaced Muslims, including refugees, internally displaced persons, and asylum seekers who have fled their homes to escape violence, conflict, and persecution, often have inequitable access to quality mental health services, despite substantial trauma exposure and high rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Understanding factors associated with domains of perceived need (i.e., community, individual, friends/family) for culturally-responsive, trauma-focused mental health interventions among forcibly displaced Muslims may provide insight into those most likely to seek psychological treatment. A sample of 108 forcibly displaced Muslims endorsed moderate to high perceived need across all three domains for a trauma healing group tailored for Muslim refugees. PTSD severity related to perceived individual need, regardless of locus of displacement. Among participants with minimal PTSD symptoms, those who were externally displaced had higher perceived community and friends or family need than those who were internally displaced. Findings highlight a need for culturally responsive, trauma-focused mental health services to facilitate access to mental health care for forcibly displaced Muslims.

Islamic trauma healing (ITH): A scalable, community-based program for trauma: Cluster randomized control trial design and method.

Background: Somalia has long been in a state of humanitarian crisis; trauma-related mental health needs are extremely high. Access to state-of-the-art mental health care is limited. Islamic Trauma Healing (ITH) is a manualized mosque-based, lay-led group intervention aimed at healing the individual and communal mental wounds of war and refugee trauma. The 6-session intervention combines Islamic principles with empirically-supported exposure and cognitive restructuring principles for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). ITH reduces training time, uses a train the trainers (TTT) model, and relies on local partnerships embedded within the strong communal mosque infrastructure. Methods: We will conduct a hybrid effectiveness-implementation randomized control trial (RCT) in the Somaliland, with implementation in the cities of Hargeisa, Borama, and Burao. In this study, a lay-led, mosque-based intervention, Islamic Trauma Healing (ITH), to promote mental health and reconciliation will be examined in 200 participants, randomizing mosques to either immediate ITH or a delayed (waitlist; WL) ITH conditions. Participants will be assessed by assessors masked to condition at pre, 3 weeks, 6 weeks, and 3-month follow-up. Primary outcome will be assessor-rated posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSD), with secondary outcomes of depression, somatic symptoms, and well-being. A TTT model will be tested, examining the implementation outcomes. Additional measures include potential mechanisms of change and cost effectiveness. Conclusion: This trial has the potential to provide effectiveness and implementation data for an empirically-based principle trauma healing program for the larger Islamic community who may not seek mental health care or does not have access to such care. Clinical trial registration number: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05890482. World health organization trial registration data set information: See Supplemental Appendix 1.

A peer veteran approach to the caring letters suicide prevention program: Preliminary data.

Caring Letters is a prevention program aimed at reducing suicide risk; however, clinical trials indicate mixed results among military and veteran samples. The present study aimed to pilot a new version of the Caring Letters intervention that was adapted to military culture in order to emphasize peer support. The supportive letters, traditionally sent from clinicians, were written by peer veterans (PVs) who volunteered from local Veteran Service Organizations (VSOs). PVs (n = 15) attended a 4-hr workshop to learn about Caring Letters and write six letters to a veteran with a recent hospitalization for suicide risk (hospitalized veterans [HVs]; n = 15 completed a baseline assessment). Letters from PVs were sent to HVs once a month for 6 months following discharge from the psychiatric inpatient unit. The study used a limited efficacy approach to examine feasibility outcomes including implementation procedures, participant recruitment and retention rates, and barriers and facilitators. Acceptability measures examined HV satisfaction, perceived privacy and safety, and PV workshop satisfaction. Among HVs, results suggested that suicidal ideation improved from baseline to follow-up (g = 3.19). Results suggested resilience scores improved among HVs (g = 0.99). Results also suggested a possible reduction in stigma associated with mental health treatment among PVs at 1-month postworkshop assessment. Interpretation of the results is limited by the design and sample size, but the results provide preliminary support for the feasibility and acceptability of a PV approach to Caring Letters. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Temporal sequencing of change in trauma-related beliefs and therapeutic alliance during prolonged exposure and sertraline for chronic PTSD.

OBJECTIVE: Changes in trauma-related beliefs and therapeutic alliance have been found to temporally precede symptom reduction; however, it is likely these processes do not act in isolation but rather in interactive ways. METHODS: The present study examined the temporal relationships between negative posttraumatic cognitions (PTCI) and therapeutic alliance (WAI) in 142 patients who were part of a randomized trial comparing prolonged exposure (PE) to sertraline for chronic PTSD. RESULTS: Using time-lagged mixed regression models, improvements in the therapeutic alliance predicted subsequent improvements in trauma-related beliefs (d = 0.59), an effect accounted for by between-patient variability (d = 0.64) compared to within-patient variability (d = .04) giving weaker support to the causal role of alliance on outcome. Belief change did not predict improvements in alliance and neither model was moderated by treatment type. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest alliance may not be an independent driver of cognition change and point to the need for additional study of the impact of patient characteristics on treatment processes.

Within-patient association between emotion regulation and outcome in prolonged exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder.

OBJECTIVE: Difficulties with emotion regulation (ER) are a risk factor for the development and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Less is known about temporal relations between ER and PTSD symptom change during treatment, including whether ER may represent a more potent change ingredient for some patients relative to others. This study examined the association between within-patient changes in ER and next-session PTSD symptom change and whether this association was more pronounced for patients with poorer baseline ER, more severe depression, or higher borderline personality disorder symptoms. METHOD: Data derived from a randomized controlled trial (NCT01600456) in which 149 adults with PTSD received up to 10 sessions of prolonged exposure (PE) or PE + sertraline. Patients rated difficulties with ER and PTSD symptoms repeatedly during treatment. Moderators were assessed at baseline. RESULTS: Cross-lagged, dynamic structural equation models revealed that ER improvements were associated with next-session reductions in PTSD (standardized effect = 0.13). PTSD symptom reduction was also associated with next-session ER improvement (standardized effect = 0.34). Moderator analyses revealed that the within-person ER-PTSD symptoms association was stronger for patients with higher baseline depression (standardized effect = 0.39). CONCLUSIONS: Reductions in PTSD symptoms may facilitate ER improvements during PE and PE augmented with sertraline rather than improvements in ER producing changes in PTSD symptoms. For patients with higher severity co-occurring depression, ER may represent a more active change ingredient. PE therapists could therefore consider placing particular emphasis on improving ER capabilities when working with this subgroup of patients. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Peer-Written Caring Letters for Veterans after a Suicidal Crisis.

OBJECTIVE: In the evidence-based suicide prevention intervention, Caring Letters, healthcare providers send brief, caring messages to patients following psychiatric inpatient care, a time of elevated suicide risk. However, recent studies with military populations have found mixed results. An adaptation of Caring Letters employed a peer framework in which veterans from the community wrote brief caring messages to veterans discharging from psychiatric inpatient treatment after a suicidal crisis. METHODS: The present study utilized content analysis to assess 90 caring messages generated by 15 peer veterans recruited from veteran service organizations (e.g., American Legion). RESULTS: Three themes emerged: (1) Shared Military Service, (2) Care, and (3) Overcoming Adversity. Peer-generated content varied in how the coded themes were expressed in the messages. CONCLUSION: These veteran-to-veteran caring messages may bolster belongingness, social support, and destigmatize mental health struggles, and have the potential to augment existing Caring Letters effects and interventions.HIGHLIGHTSVeterans commonly wrote about shared military services, care, and adversities.Supportive messages from peers may be tied to social support.Our analyses support possible benefits for veterans receiving caring messages.

Examining the psychosocial impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic: an international cross-sectional study protocol.

INTRODUCTION: The COVID-19 pandemic exposed people to significant and prolonged stress. The psychosocial impacts of the pandemic have been well recognised and reported in high-income countries (HICs) but it is important to understand the unique challenges posed by COVID-19 in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) where limited international comparisons have been undertaken. This protocol was therefore devised to study the psychosocial impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic in seven LMICs using scales that had been designed for or translated for this purpose. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This cross-sectional study uses an online survey to administer a novel COVID Psychosocial Impacts Scale (CPIS) alongside established measures of psychological distress, post-traumatic stress, well-being and post-traumatic growth in the appropriate language. Participants will include adults aged 18 years and above, recruited from Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Malaysia, Pakistan, Somalia and Turkey, with a pragmatic target sample size of 500 in each country.Data will be analysed descriptively on sociodemographic and study variables. In addition, CPIS will be analysed psychometrically (for reliability and validity) to assess the suitability of use in a given context. Finally, within-subjects and between-subjects analyses will be carried out using multi-level mixed-effect models to examine associations between key sociodemographic and study variables. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethical approval was granted by the Human Ethics Committee, University of Otago, New Zealand (Ref. No. 21/102). In addition, international collaborators obtained local authorisation or ethical approval in their respective host universities before data collection commenced.Participants will give informed consent before taking part. Data will be collected and stored securely on the University of Otago, New Zealand Qualtrics platform using an auto-generated non-identifiable letter-number string. Data will be available on reasonable request. Findings will be disseminated by publications in scientific journals and/or conference presentations. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT05052333.

WhatsApp supervision for a lay-led Islamic trauma-focused intervention in Somaliland: Qualitative content analysis.

Clinical supervision is critical for the uptake of psychotherapy but difficult to facilitate in countries with limited providers, resources, and internet infrastructure. Innovative supervision approaches are needed to increase access to mental health treatments in low-to-middle income countries (LMICs). This study examined the content and feasibility of remote WhatsApp text supervision conducted as part of an open clinical trial in Somaliland. Islamic Trauma Healing ITH) is a brief, group, lay-lead, trauma-focused, mosque-based intervention that has demonstrated initial efficacy in pilot studies in the United States and Somaliland. After a 2-day, in-person training, lay leaders led four groups of five to seven members focused on trauma-related psychopathology and community reconciliation. Somali lay leaders trained in ITH (n = 9) and the research team (n = 6) attended weekly WhatsApp supervision during the intervention. Content was logged and subjected to qualitative analysis by two coders. Comments related to intervention implementation indicated that lay leaders understood the treatment rationale, adhered to treatment procedures, and believed the intervention components to be helpful and culturally relevant. Themes related to engagement suggested perfect attendance across groups and high levels of participation. Lay leader psychoeducation and skill development; supervisor praise, support, and encouragement; and supervisee gratitude emerged as additional themes. Remote text supervision conducted via WhatsApp was technologically feasible and may have facilitated skill development and the effective implementation of this lay-led intervention. When tailored to the local context, remote supervision approaches hold promise for increasing access to services in LMICs with limited resources.

The role of social connectedness in buffering the effects of discrimination on post-trauma cognitions in forcibly displaced Muslims.

INTRODUCTION: Among trauma-exposed, forcibly displaced Muslims, very little is known about how social connectedness, or perceived interpersonal connection and belonging, may alter the relationship between discrimination and negative posttraumatic cognitions. Discrimination may aggravate trauma psychopathology (Helms et al., 2010); however, social connectedness may buffer its negative effects (Juang & Alvarez, 2010). OBJECTIVE: We examined whether higher religious and racial/ethnic discrimination would be associated with stronger negative posttraumatic cognitions and whether stronger social connectedness may adaptively buffer this relationship. METHOD: Trauma exposed individuals (N = 99) who identified as Muslim and as a refugee, asylum seeker, or internally displaced person participated in the study. Measures of discrimination, social connection, and posttraumatic cognitions were completed. RESULTS: Higher discrimination was moderately associated with stronger negative trauma-related cognitions (r = .40, p < .001) and with lower social connectedness (r = -.32, p = .001). Social connectedness moderated the relationship between discrimination and posttraumatic cognitions, such that at lower levels of social connectedness there was a stronger relationship between discrimination and posttraumatic cognitions (-2SD: b = .32, -1SD: b = .23, M: b = .14), this was not present at higher levels of social connectedness. CONCLUSIONS: Connectedness to one's minority group may be an important protective factor by modulating the effects of discrimination on posttrauma adjustment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The effect of perceived life stress on posttraumatic stress disorder treatment outcome.

Life stress following trauma exposure is a consistent predictor of the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, there is a dearth of research on the effect of life stress on PTSD treatment outcomes. The current study examined the effects of pretreatment levels of perceived life stress on treatment outcome in a sample of 200 individuals with PTSD who were randomized to receive either prolonged exposure (PE) therapy or sertraline as part of a clinical trial. Life stress over the year prior to treatment significantly interacted with treatment type to predict higher residual PTSD symptom severity, as assessed using the PTSD Symptom Scale-Interview, among participants who received sertraline but not those who received PE, ß = .24, p = .017, ∆R2 = .03. These findings were similar for self-reported depression severity, ß = .27, p = .008, ∆R2 = .04. Adherence to either PE homework or sertraline compliance did not mediate this association nor did life stress predict treatment retention for either treatment arm. Higher levels of perceived life stress may serve as a prescriptive predictor of PTSD treatment outcome, with PE remaining efficacious regardless of heightened pretreatment life stress. These findings encourage clinician confidence when providing PE to individuals with higher levels of life stress. Future researchers should examine the impact of PTSD treatment on perceived and objective measures of life stress to improve treatment for individuals who experience chronic stress.

A network approach to posttraumatic stress disorder: Comparing interview and self-report networks.

OBJECTIVE: Trauma-related fear (e.g., reexperiencing), impaired reward (e.g., anhedonia), and interpersonal (e.g., detachment) processes may be functionally intertwined, giving rise to chronic psychopathology after a trauma. Network analyses can help pinpoint symptom drivers and treatment targets, but studies examining posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) treatment-seeking individuals are lacking. METHOD: Treatment-seeking adults with primary PTSD (N = 350) completed interview and self-report measures of PTSD severity (PSS-I; PSS-SR). Self-report and interview-based networks were estimated and compared. RESULTS: Both networks suggested distinct but interconnected communities of reexperiencing and dysphoric symptoms (e.g., interpersonal detachment, numbing). Centrality profiles were strongly associated across networks (rs = .71), with cued reexperiencing and interpersonal detachment showing strong centrality. Self-reported symptoms were more interconnected, suggesting lower specificity. CONCLUSIONS: For those seeking treatment, interrelated fear and interpersonal processes may drive functional impairment in PTSD, and interview-based networks may help better delineate influential symptoms. Therapeutically, targeting cued reexperiencing and interpersonal detachment may facilitate broader symptom decreases. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Examining Individual and Synergistic Contributions of PTSD and Genetics to Blood Pressure: A Trans-Ethnic Meta-Analysis.

Growing research suggests that posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may be a risk factor for poor cardiovascular health, and yet our understanding of who might be at greatest risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes after trauma is limited. In this study, we conducted the first examination of the individual and synergistic contributions of PTSD symptoms and blood pressure genetics to continuous blood pressure levels. We harnessed the power of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium-PTSD Physical Health Working Group and investigated these associations across 11 studies of 72,224 trauma-exposed individuals of European (n = 70,870) and African (n = 1,354) ancestry. Genetic contributions to blood pressure were modeled via polygenic scores (PGS) for systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) that were derived from a prior trans-ethnic blood pressure genome-wide association study (GWAS). Results of trans-ethnic meta-analyses revealed significant main effects of the PGS on blood pressure levels [SBP: ß = 2.83, standard error (SE) = 0.06, p < 1E-20; DBP: ß = 1.32, SE = 0.04, p < 1E-20]. Significant main effects of PTSD symptoms were also detected for SBP and DBP in trans-ethnic meta-analyses, though there was significant heterogeneity in these results. When including data from the largest contributing study - United Kingdom Biobank - PTSD symptoms were negatively associated with SBP levels (ß = -1.46, SE = 0.44, p = 9.8E-4) and positively associated with DBP levels (ß = 0.70, SE = 0.26, p = 8.1E-3). However, when excluding the United Kingdom Biobank cohort in trans-ethnic meta-analyses, there was a nominally significant positive association between PTSD symptoms and SBP levels (ß = 2.81, SE = 1.13, p = 0.01); no significant association was observed for DBP (ß = 0.43, SE = 0.78, p = 0.58). Blood pressure PGS did not significantly moderate the associations between PTSD symptoms and blood pressure levels in meta-analyses. Additional research is needed to better understand the extent to which PTSD is associated with high blood pressure and how genetic as well as contextual factors may play a role in influencing cardiovascular risk.

Reaching the Unreached: Bridging Islam and Science to Treat the Mental Wounds of War.

Radical new paradigms are needed to equip non-professionals and leverage community faith-based infrastructure to address the individual and communal wounds of war- and conflict-related trauma. Muslims in war-torn regions like Somalia experience high rates of trauma and posttraumatic stress; yet, lack of providers, potential stigma, and lack of integration with one's faith are substantial barriers to care. In this pre-post feasibility clinical trial (NCT03761732), mosque leaders implemented a brief, group- and mosque-based intervention, Islamic Trauma Healing, targeting trauma-related psychopathology and community reconciliation for trauma survivors (N = 26) in Somaliland, Somalia. Leaders were trained in a brief 2-day training, with supervision provided remotely via WhatsApp. This six-session intervention combines empirically-supported trauma-focused psychotherapy and Islamic principles, focusing on wisdom from the lives of the Prophets and turning to Allah in dua about trauma. There were large, clinically meaningful effects for PTSD (g = 1.91), depression (g = 2.00), somatic symptoms (g = 2.73), and well-being (g = 1.77). Qualitative data from group members highlighted how well the program was aligned with their Islamic faith, built community, and need to expand the program. These results highlight the feasibility of this non-expert, easily up-scalable mental health approach in war-torn Muslim regions and refugee communities. This program has the potential to provide a low-cost, self-sustaining, Islam-based intervention addressing the psychological wounds of war consistent with the IOM's call to develop novel approaches to address unmet clinical needs. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03761732.

Latent Profiles of Comorbid Depression as Predictors of PTSD Treatment Outcome.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) frequently co-occurs with major depressive disorder, and empirically supported PTSD treatments consistently improve depression. However, both diagnoses are heterogeneous and specific patterns of symptom overlap may be related to worse treatment outcome. Two hundred individuals with chronic PTSD participated in a doubly randomized preference trial comparing prolonged exposure and sertraline. Latent Profile Analysis was used to identify classes based on PTSD and depression symptoms prior to starting treatment. A three-class model best fit the data, with a high depression and PTSD severity class (distressed), a moderate depression and low PTSD avoidance class (depressive), and a low depression and high PTSD avoidance class (avoidant). The avoidant class showed the lowest rates of major depressive disorder diagnosis and transdiagnostic vulnerabilities to depression. Patients in the distressed class experienced more robust PTSD treatment response, with no differences between prolonged exposure and sertraline. These findings highlight the role of avoidance in nondepressed PTSD presentations while also demonstrating that co-occurring depression is not contraindicated in evidence-based PTSD treatment.

Islamic Trauma Healing: Integrating Faith and Empirically Supported Principles in a Community-Based Program.

Access to adequate, much less state-of-the-art, mental health care is a global problem. Natural disasters, civil war, and terrorist conflict have forcibly displaced millions of Muslims and have resulted in a remarkable level of individual and communitywide trauma exposure. As a result, many are at risk for posttraumatic stress and other trauma-related disorders. Many religiously oriented Muslims traditionally rely on Islamic principles and teachings, as well as their community, to cope with and address trauma-related distress. Islamic Trauma Healing is a six-session, lay-led group intervention developed within a Somali Muslim community that integrates evidence-based trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy principles with cultural and religious practices aimed to enhance uptake and create an easily up-scalable intervention for a wide range of trauma. In sessions, narratives of prophets who have undergone trauma (e.g., Prophet Ayyub, faith during hard times) present Islamic principles and facilitate cognitive shifts. Group members spend individual time turning to Allah in dua (i.e., informal prayer), focused on exposure to trauma memories. Program themes arc across suffering to healing to growth following trauma. This paper describes the core theoretical principles and methods in the Islamic Trauma Healing program. We also describe leader perspectives and the program's train-the-trainer model, in which lay leaders are trained to further disseminate the program and allow Islamic Trauma Healing to be owned and sustained by the Muslim community.

Transdiagnostic emotion regulation processes explain how emotion-related factors affect co-occurring PTSD and MDD in relation to trauma.

BACKGROUND: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) co-occur at high rates and greater disorder severity. Studies examining the contributions of specific emotion regulation (ER) processes and negative affect (NA) to PTSD and MDD co-occurrence are scarce. This study investigated a transdiagnostic understanding of the nature of PTSD and MDD co-occurrence by examining the roles of NA, ER processes, and negative mood regulation (NMR) expectancies in PTSD and MDD in relation to trauma. METHODS: Structural equation modeling was used to examine the roles of emotionality, PTSD, and MDD constructs in 200 individuals with primary PTSD. RESULTS: ER processes fully mediated the relationships between NA and PTSD (ß = .40, p < .001) and MDD (ß = .48, p < .001), and NMR expectancies and PTSD (ß = -.31, p < .001) and MDD (ß = -.37, p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: NA and NMR expectancies exert their effects on PTSD and MDD almost entirely through ER processes. ER appears to be a transdiagnostic process, partly accounting for the co-occurrence between PTSD and MDD. Co-occurrence models could benefit by incorporating ER processes to inform diagnostic classification and criteria and clinical intervention improved by specifically targeting ER processes.

Religious coping, perceived discrimination, and posttraumatic growth in an international sample of forcibly displaced Muslims.

Displaced persons are exposed to trauma and experience posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTS). Many displaced Muslims come from communities that rely on religious practices to cope with traumatic experiences, and religious coping has been identified as predictive of posttraumatic growth (PTG). Discrimination may contribute to increased PTS and promote in-group identification. In this study, we hypothesized that perceived discrimination would enhance the relationship between religious coping and PTG. Results indicated that religious coping predicted PTG, but the overall interaction with discrimination was not significant. However, probing moderating effects at discrete levels of discrimination yielded enhanced relationship between religious coping and PTG at its mean and above until reaching the highest values of discrimination. For individuals who experience moderate to high levels of discrimination, religious coping increased PTG. These findings highlight the essential role of religious coping in promoting growth for many Muslims exposed to forced migration and elevated levels of discrimination.

Differences in Posttraumatic and Psychosocial Outcomes Among Refugees, Asylum Seekers, and Internally Displaced Persons.

Refugees, asylum seekers, and internally displaced persons differ in their experiences, potentially affecting posttraumatic outcomes such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, posttraumatic cognitions, and posttraumatic growth (PTG), as well as psychosocial outcomes such as social connection, discrimination, and well-being. We explored these differences in a sample of N = 112 Muslim displaced persons. Results from planned contrasts indicated that refugees reported more PTSD symptoms (t[46.63] = 3.04, p = 0.004, d = 0.77) and more PTG (t[94] = 2.71, p = 0.008, d = 0.61) than asylum seekers. Higher posttraumatic cognitions predicted less social connections across displacement immigration category. The strength of this relationship was more pronounced for asylum seekers than refugees (b = -0.43, p = 0.014). Refugees may focus more on direct threats from others, resulting in more PTSD symptoms, whereas asylum seekers' uncertainty may pose a greater threat, exacerbating posttraumatic beliefs that drive social disconnection.

Differentiating "types" of treatment dropout: Nonstarters in an RCT of prolonged exposure versus sertraline.

Despite effective interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), many patients prematurely drop out. Differentiating "types" of dropout at various stages of treatment may improve our ability to predict and prevent attrition. Using data from a doubly randomized preference trial, this study examined patient dropout prior to treatment and compared these "nonstarters" with treatment starters and in-treatment dropouts. Patients (N = 200) with chronic PTSD were randomized to "choice" (prolonged exposure [PE] or sertraline) or "no choice" (re-randomized to PE or sertraline) and received up to 10 weeks of treatment. Overall dropout rate was 33.0% (n = 66). A substantial minority were nonstarters (n = 19; 28.8%). Relative to patients who began treatment, nonstarters reported less severe PTSD symptomatology (p = .03, d = 0.57) and were less likely to have received their preferred treatment (p < .001). These differences remained even when comparing nonstarters to patients that began treatment but eventually dropped out. Differences in beliefs (i.e., perceived credibility) toward one treatment versus the other were also linked to pretreatment dropout. Reasons underlying dropout likely differ during various treatment stages. Better understanding risk factors for types of dropout may inform strategies to boost engagement and retention, ultimately improving patient outcomes.

Imaginal exposure exacerbation revisited: Deconstructing patient characteristics associated with worse reactions to the initiation of imaginal exposure in PTSD.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines whether imaginal exposure leads to symptom exacerbation, systematically comparing individuals who received prolonged exposure (PE) to those who received pharmacotherapy. The study also examined whether common clinical features increase the likelihood of symptom exacerbation. METHOD: In 151 men and women with PTSD, we examined rates of reliable exacerbation of PTSD and depression symptoms after initiation of imaginal exposure and compared it to those receiving sertraline. We also examined relationships between exacerbation, treatment outcome, dropout, imaginal distress, and specific clinical features, including co-occurring MDD, multiple co-occurring disorders, childhood sexual abuse as target trauma, and a history of childhood physical or sexual abuse. RESULTS: Symptom exacerbation was not more common in PE compared to sertraline, not associated with higher dropout, or predictive of worse outcome. Those with co-occurring depression or multiple disorders, a target trauma of child sexual abuse, or a history of child abuse reported functionally equivalent peak distress at onset of imaginal as those without these characteristics. These factors did not lead to more exacerbation or worse adherence. CONCLUSION: Exacerbation was not specific to PE and patients with and without symptom worsening showed comparable treatment gains, suggesting symptom exacerbation may reflect a common clinical process.