SARS-CoV-2 infection establishes a stable and age-independent CD8+ T cell response against a dominant nucleocapsid epitope using restricted T cell receptors.

The resolution of SARS-CoV-2 replication hinges on cell-mediated immunity, wherein CD8+ T cells play a vital role. Nonetheless, the characterization of the specificity and TCR composition of CD8+ T cells targeting non-spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 before and after infection remains incomplete. Here, we analyzed CD8+ T cells recognizing six epitopes from the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid (N) protein and found that SARS-CoV-2 infection slightly increased the frequencies of N-recognizing CD8+ T cells but significantly enhanced activation-induced proliferation compared to that of the uninfected donors. The frequencies of N-specific CD8+ T cells and their proliferative response to stimulation did not decrease over one year. We identified the N222-230 peptide (LLLDRLNQL, referred to as LLL thereafter) as a dominant epitope that elicited the greatest proliferative response from both convalescent and uninfected donors. Single-cell sequencing of T cell receptors (TCR) from LLL-specific CD8+ T cells revealed highly restricted Vα gene usage (TRAV12-2) with limited CDR3α motifs, supported by structural characterization of the TCR-LLL-HLA-A2 complex. Lastly, transcriptome analysis of LLL-specific CD8+ T cells from donors who had expansion (expanders) or no expansion (non-expanders) after in vitro stimulation identified increased chromatin modification and innate immune functions of CD8+ T cells in non-expanders. These results suggests that SARS-CoV-2 infection induces LLL-specific CD8+ T cell responses with a restricted TCR repertoire.

Epigenetic signature of human immune aging in the GESTALT study.

Age-associated DNA methylation in blood cells convey information on health status. However, the mechanisms that drive these changes in circulating cells and their relationships to gene regulation are unknown. We identified age-associated DNA methylation sites in six purified blood-borne immune cell types (naive B, naive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, granulocytes, monocytes, and NK cells) collected from healthy individuals interspersed over a wide age range. Of the thousands of age-associated sites, only 350 sites were differentially methylated in the same direction in all cell types and validated in an independent longitudinal cohort. Genes close to age-associated hypomethylated sites were enriched for collagen biosynthesis and complement cascade pathways, while genes close to hypermethylated sites mapped to neuronal pathways. In silico analyses showed that in most cell types, the age-associated hypo- and hypermethylated sites were enriched for ARNT (HIF1ß) and REST transcription factor (TF) motifs, respectively, which are both master regulators of hypoxia response. To conclude, despite spatial heterogeneity, there is a commonality in the putative regulatory role with respect to TF motifs and histone modifications at and around these sites. These features suggest that DNA methylation changes in healthy aging may be adaptive responses to fluctuations of oxygen availability.

Transcriptomes of human primary skin fibroblasts of healthy individuals reveal age-associated mRNAs and long noncoding RNAs.

Changes in the transcriptomes of human tissues with advancing age are poorly cataloged. Here, we sought to identify the coding and long noncoding RNAs present in cultured primary skin fibroblasts collected from 82 healthy individuals across a wide age spectrum (22-89 years old) who participated in the GESTALT (Genetic and Epigenetic Signatures of Translational Aging Laboratory Testing) study of the National Institute on Aging, NIH. Using high-throughput RNA sequencing and a linear regression model, we identified 1437 coding RNAs (mRNAs) and 1177 linear and circular long noncoding (lncRNAs) that were differentially abundant as a function of age. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) revealed select transcription factors implicated in coordinating the transcription of subsets of differentially abundant mRNAs, while long noncoding RNA enrichment analysis (LncSEA) identified RNA-binding proteins predicted to participate in the age-associated lncRNA profiles. In summary, we report age-associated changes in the global transcriptome, coding and noncoding, from healthy human skin fibroblasts and propose that these transcripts may serve as biomarkers and therapeutic targets in aging skin.

Whole-genome methylation analysis of aging human tissues identifies age-related changes in developmental and neurological pathways.

Age-associated changes in the DNA methylation state can be used to assess the pace of aging. However, it is not understood what mechanisms drive these changes and whether these changes affect the development of aging phenotypes and the aging process in general. This study was aimed at gaining a more comprehensive understanding of aging-related methylation changes across the whole genome, and relating these changes to biological functions. It has been shown that skeletal muscle and blood monocytes undergo typical changes with aging. Using whole-genome bisulfite sequencing, we sought to characterize the genome-wide changes in methylation of DNA derived from both skeletal muscle and blood monocytes, and link these changes to specific genes and pathways through enrichment analysis. We found that methylation changes occur with aging at the locations enriched for developmental and neuronal pathways regulated in these two peripheral tissues. These results contribute to our understanding of changes in epigenome in human aging.

Heterogeneity and transcriptome changes of human CD8+ T cells across nine decades of life.

The decline of CD8+ T cell functions contributes to deteriorating health with aging, but the mechanisms that underlie this phenomenon are not well understood. We use single-cell RNA sequencing with both cross-sectional and longitudinal samples to assess how human CD8+ T cell heterogeneity and transcriptomes change over nine decades of life. Eleven subpopulations of CD8+ T cells and their dynamic changes with age are identified. Age-related changes in gene expression result from changes in the percentage of cells expressing a given transcript, quantitative changes in the transcript level, or a combination of these two. We develop a machine learning model capable of predicting the age of individual cells based on their transcriptomic features, which are closely associated with their differentiation and mutation burden. Finally, we validate this model in two separate contexts of CD8+ T cell aging: HIV infection and CAR T cell expansion in vivo.

Longitudinal analysis reveals age-related changes in the T cell receptor repertoire of human T cell subsets.

A diverse T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire is essential for protection against a variety of pathogens, and TCR repertoire size is believed to decline with age. However, the precise size of human TCR repertoires, in both total and subsets of T cells, as well as their changes with age, are not fully characterized. We conducted a longitudinal analysis of the human blood TCRα and TCRß repertoire of CD4+ and CD8+ T cell subsets using a unique molecular identifier-based (UMI-based) RNA-seq method. Thorough analysis of 1.9 × 108 T cells yielded the lower estimate of TCR repertoire richness in an adult at 3.8 × 108. Alterations of the TCR repertoire with age were observed in all 4 subsets of T cells. The greatest reduction was observed in naive CD8+ T cells, while the greatest clonal expansion was in memory CD8+ T cells, and the highest increased retention of TCR sequences was in memory CD8+ T cells. Our results demonstrated that age-related TCR repertoire attrition is subset specific and more profound for CD8+ than CD4+ T cells, suggesting that aging has a more profound effect on cytotoxic as opposed to helper T cell functions. This may explain the increased susceptibility of older adults to novel infections.

Prior psychosocial profile and perceived impact of the COVID-19 pandemic: insights from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging.

Stress, social isolation, and changes in health behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic period may have a lasting influence on health. Here, the correlation between current or prior demographic, social and health related characteristics, including psychosocial factors with perceived impact of the COVID-19 pandemic assessed by questionnaire during the early pandemic period is evaluated among 770 participants of the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. In multinomial logistic regression models participants with higher pre-pandemic personal mastery, a construct related to self-efficacy, were more likely to report "both positive and negative" impact of the pandemic than a solely "negative" impact (OR: 2.17, 95% CI: 1.29-3.65). Higher perceived stress and frequent contact with family prior to the pandemic were also associated with pandemic impact. These observations highlight the relevance of psychosocial factors in the COVID-19 pandemic experience and identify characteristics that may inform interventions in future public health crises.

Proteomes of primary skin fibroblasts from healthy individuals reveal altered cell responses across the life span.

Changes in the proteome of different human tissues with advancing age are poorly characterized. Here, we studied the proteins present in primary skin fibroblasts collected from 82 healthy individuals across a wide age spectrum (22-89 years old) who participated in the GESTALT (Genetic and Epigenetic Signatures of Translational Aging Laboratory Testing) study of the National Institute on Aging, NIH. Proteins were extracted from lysed fibroblasts and subjected to liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis, and the expression levels of 9341 proteins were analyzed using linear regression models. We identified key pathways associated with skin fibroblast aging, including autophagy, scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS), ribosome biogenesis, DNA replication, and DNA repair. Changes in these prominent pathways were corroborated using molecular and cell culture approaches. Our study establishes a framework of the global proteome governing skin fibroblast aging and points to possible biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Longitudinal phenotypic aging metrics in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging.

To define metrics of phenotypic aging, it is essential to identify biological and environmental factors that influence the pace of aging. Previous attempts to develop aging metrics were hampered by cross-sectional designs and/or focused on younger populations. In the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA), we collected longitudinally across the adult age range a comprehensive list of phenotypes within four domains (body composition, energetics, homeostatic mechanisms and neurodegeneration/neuroplasticity) and functional outcomes. We integrated individual deviations from population trajectories into a global longitudinal phenotypic metric of aging and demonstrate that accelerated longitudinal phenotypic aging is associated with faster physical and cognitive decline, faster accumulation of multimorbidity and shorter survival. These associations are more robust compared with the use of phenotypic and epigenetic measurements at a single time point. Estimation of these metrics required repeated measures of multiple phenotypes over time but may uniquely facilitate the identification of mechanisms driving phenotypic aging and subsequent age-related functional decline.

DNA methylation signatures reveal that distinct combinations of transcription factors specify human immune cell epigenetic identity.

Epigenetic reprogramming underlies specification of immune cell lineages, but patterns that uniquely define immune cell types and the mechanisms by which they are established remain unclear. Here, we identified lineage-specific DNA methylation signatures of six immune cell types from human peripheral blood and determined their relationship to other epigenetic and transcriptomic patterns. Sites of lineage-specific hypomethylation were associated with distinct combinations of transcription factors in each cell type. By contrast, sites of lineage-specific hypermethylation were restricted mostly to adaptive immune cells. PU.1 binding sites were associated with lineage-specific hypo- and hypermethylation in different cell types, suggesting that it regulates DNA methylation in a context-dependent manner. These observations indicate that innate and adaptive immune lineages are specified by distinct epigenetic mechanisms via combinatorial and context-dependent use of key transcription factors. The cell-specific epigenomics and transcriptional patterns identified serve as a foundation for future studies on immune dysregulation in diseases and aging.

Age-associated expression of p21and p53 during human wound healing.

In mice, cellular senescence and senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) positively contribute to cutaneous wound healing. In this proof-of-concept study, we investigated the expressions of p16, p21, and other senescence-associated biomarkers during human wound healing in 24 healthy subjects using a double-biopsy experimental design. The first punch biopsy created the wound and established the baseline. The second biopsy, concentric to the first and taken several days after wounding, was used to probe for expression of biomarkers by immunohistochemistry and RNA FISH. To assess the effects of age, we recruited 12 sex-matched younger (30.2 ± 1.3 years) and 12 sex-matched older (75.6 ± 1.8 years) subjects. We found that p21 and p53, but not p16, were induced during healing in younger, but not older subjects. A role for Notch signaling in p21 expression was inferred from the inducible activation of HES1. Further, other SASP biomarkers such as dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) were significantly induced upon wounding in both younger and older groups, whereas matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9) was induced only in the younger group. Senescence-associated ß-galactosidase (SA-ß-gal) was not detectable before or after wounding. This pilot study suggests the possibility that human cutaneous wound healing is characterized by differential expression of p21 and p53 between younger and older subjects.

Skeletal muscle transcriptome in healthy aging.

Age-associated changes in gene expression in skeletal muscle of healthy individuals reflect accumulation of damage and compensatory adaptations to preserve tissue integrity. To characterize these changes, RNA was extracted and sequenced from muscle biopsies collected from 53 healthy individuals (22-83 years old) of the GESTALT study of the National Institute on Aging-NIH. Expression levels of 57,205 protein-coding and non-coding RNAs were studied as a function of aging by linear and negative binomial regression models. From both models, 1134 RNAs changed significantly with age. The most differentially abundant mRNAs encoded proteins implicated in several age-related processes, including cellular senescence, insulin signaling, and myogenesis. Specific mRNA isoforms that changed significantly with age in skeletal muscle were enriched for proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation and adipogenesis. Our study establishes a detailed framework of the global transcriptome and mRNA isoforms that govern muscle damage and homeostasis with age.

Age-related estimates of aggregate g-ratio of white matter structures assessed using quantitative magnetic resonance neuroimaging.

The g-ratio, defined as the inner-to-outer diameter of a myelinated axon, is associated with the speed of nerve impulse conduction, and represents an index of axonal myelination and integrity. It has been shown to be a sensitive and specific biomarker of neurodevelopment and neurodegeneration. However, there have been very few magnetic resonance imaging studies of the g-ratio in the context of normative aging; characterizing regional and time-dependent cerebral changes in g-ratio in cognitively normal subjects will be a crucial step in differentiating normal from abnormal microstructural alterations. In the current study, we investigated age-related differences in aggregate g-ratio, that is, g-ratio averaged over all fibers within regions of interest, in several white matter regions in a cohort of 52 cognitively unimpaired participants ranging in age from 21 to 84 years. We found a quadratic, U-shaped, relationship between aggregate g-ratio and age in most cerebral regions investigated, suggesting myelin maturation until middle age followed by a decrease at older ages. As expected, we observed that these age-related differences vary across different brain regions, with the frontal lobes and parietal lobes exhibiting slightly earlier ages of minimum aggregate g-ratio as compared to more posterior structures such as the occipital lobes and temporal lobes; this agrees with the retrogenesis paradigm. Our results provide evidence for a nonlinear association between age and aggregate g-ratio in a sample of adults from a highly controlled population. Finally, sex differences in aggregate g-ratio were observed in several cerebral regions, with women exhibiting overall lower values as compared to men; this likely reflects the greater myelin content in women's brain, in agreement with recent investigations.

Quantitative age-dependent differences in human brainstem myelination assessed using high-resolution magnetic resonance mapping.

Previous in-vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based studies of age-related differences in the human brainstem have focused on volumetric morphometry. These investigations have provided pivotal insights into regional brainstem atrophy but have not addressed microstructural age differences. However, growing evidence indicates the sensitivity of quantitative MRI to microstructural tissue changes in the brain. These studies have largely focused on the cerebrum, with very few MR investigations addressing age-dependent differences in the brainstem, in spite of its central role in the regulation of vital functions. Several studies indicate early brainstem alterations in a myriad of neurodegenerative diseases and dementias. The paucity of MR-focused investigations is likely due in part to the challenges imposed by the small structural scale of the brainstem itself as well as of substructures within, requiring accurate high spatial resolution imaging studies. In this work, we applied our recently developed approach to high-resolution myelin water fraction (MWF) mapping, a proxy for myelin content, to investigate myelin differences with normal aging within the brainstem. In this cross-sectional investigation, we studied a large cohort (n = 125) of cognitively unimpaired participants spanning a wide age range (21-94 years) and found a decrease in myelination with age in most brainstem regions studied, with several regions exhibiting a quadratic association between myelin and age. We believe that this study is the first investigation of MWF differences with normative aging in the adult brainstem. Further, our results provide reference MWF values.

Heritable disorders of connective tissue: Description of a data repository and initial cohort characterization.

We describe a data repository on heritable disorders of connective tissue (HDCT) assembled by the National Institutes of Health's National Institute on Aging (NIA) Intramural Research Program between 2001 and 2013. Participants included affected persons with a wide range of heritable connective tissue phenotypes, and unaffected family members. Elements include comprehensive history and physical examination, standardized laboratory data, physiologic measures and imaging, standardized patient-reported outcome measures, and an extensive linked biorepository. The NIA made a commitment to make the repository available to extramural investigators and deposited samples at Coriell Tissue Repository (N = 126) and GenTAC registry (N = 132). The clinical dataset was transferred to Penn State University College of Medicine Clinical and Translational Science Institute in 2016, and data elements inventoried. The consented cohort of 1,009 participants averaged 39 ± 18 years (mean ± SD, range 2-95) at consent; gender distribution is 71% F and 83% self-report Caucasian ethnicity. Diagnostic categories include Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (classical N = 50, hypermobile N = 99, vascular N = 101, rare types and unclassified N = 178), Marfan syndrome (N = 33), Stickler syndrome (N = 60), fibromuscular dysplasia (N = 135), Other HDCT (N = 72). Unaffected family members (N = 218) contributed DNA for the molecular archive only. We aim to develop further discrete data from unstructured elements, analyze multisymptom HDCT manifestations, encourage data use by other researchers and thereby better understand the complexity of these high-morbidity conditions and their multifaceted effects on affected persons.

Evidence of demyelination in mild cognitive impairment and dementia using a direct and specific magnetic resonance imaging measure of myelin content.

INTRODUCTION: We investigated brain demyelination in aging, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and dementia using a direct magnetic resonance imaging marker of myelin. METHODS: Brains of young and old controls, and old subjects with MCI, Alzheimer's disease, or vascular dementia were scanned using our recently developed myelin water fraction (MWF) mapping technique, which provides greatly improved accuracy over previous comparable methods. Maps of MWF, a direct and specific myelin measure, and relaxation times and magnetization transfer ratio, indirect and nonspecific measures, were constructed. RESULTS: MCI subjects showed decreased MWF compared with old controls. Demyelination was greater in Alzheimer's disease or vascular dementia. As expected, decreased MWF was accompanied by decreased magnetization transfer ratio and increased relaxation times. The young subjects showed greater myelin content than the old subjects. DISCUSSION: We believe this to be the first demonstration of myelin loss in MCI, Alzheimer's disease, and vascular dementia using a method that provides a quantitative magnetic resonance imaging-based measure of myelin. Our findings add to the emerging evidence that myelination may represent an important biomarker for the pathology of MCI and dementia. This study supports the investigation of the role of myelination in MCI and dementia through use of this quantitative magnetic resonance imaging approach in clinical studies of disease progression, and relationship of functional status to myelination status. Furthermore, mapping MWF may permit myelin to serve as a therapeutic target in clinical trials.

Skeletal muscle ex vivo mitochondrial respiration parallels decline in vivo oxidative capacity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and muscle strength: The Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging.

Mitochondrial function in human skeletal muscle declines with age. Most evidence for this decline comes from studies that assessed mitochondrial function indirectly, and the impact of such deterioration with respect to physical function has not been clearly delineated. We hypothesized that mitochondrial respiration in permeabilized human muscle fibers declines with age and correlates with phosphocreatine postexercise recovery rate (kPCr), muscle performance, and aerobic fitness. Mitochondrial respiration was assessed by high-resolution respirometry in saponin-permeabilized fibers from vastus lateralis muscle biopsies of 38 participants from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA; 21 men, age 24-91 years) who also had available measures of peak oxygen consumption (VO2max ) from treadmill tests, gait speed in different tasks, 31 P magnetic resonance spectroscopy, isokinetic knee extension, and grip strength. Results indicated a significant reduction in mitochondrial respiration with age (p < .05) that was independent of other potential confounders. Mitochondrial respiratory capacity was also associated with VO2max , muscle strength, kPCr, and time to complete a 400-m walk (p < .05). A negative trend toward significance (p = .074) was observed between mitochondrial respiration and BMI. Finally, transcriptional profiling revealed a reduced mRNA expression of mitochondrial gene networks with aging (p < .05). Overall, our findings reinforce the notion that mitochondrial function declines with age and may contribute to age-associated loss of muscle performance and cardiorespiratory fitness.

A double blind placebo controlled randomized trial of the effect of acute uric acid changes on inflammatory markers in humans: A pilot study.

Uric acid has been linked with increased risk of chronic disease such as cardiovascular disease and this association has been attributed to a pro-inflammatory effect. Indeed, observational studies have shown that high uric acid is associated with high level of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the blood. However, whether high uric acid directly affects inflammation or rather represents a parallel defensive antioxidant mechanism in response to pathology that causes inflammation is unknown. To determine whether acute increase or decrease uric acid levels affects inflammation in healthy individuals, a randomized, placebo-controlled, double blind clinical study of uric acid or rasburicase with 20 healthy volunteers in each treatment-placebo group was conducted at the National Institute on Aging (NIA) Clinical Research Unit (CRU) at Harbor Hospital in Baltimore, MD. Change in inflammatory response was assessed by administering an oral lipid tolerance before and after the treatment of uric acid, rasburicase and placebo. Following uric acid administration, there was an accentuated increase in IL-6 during the oral lipid tolerance test (P<0.001). No significant differences were observed after lowering of uric acid with rasburicase. No side effects were reported throughout the trial. In health individuals, acute increase in uric acid results in an increased IL-6 response when challenged with lipid load. Such effect of amplification of inflammatory response may explain the higher risk of chronic diseases observed in subclinical hyperuricemia in observational studies. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01323335.