Edentulism and quality of life in the Salvadoran population: a cross-sectional study.

INTRODUCTION: Edentulism is the partial or total loss of teeth, it is irreversible and disabling due to its sequelae in the masticatory, phonetic and aesthetic function that affect the quality of life. OBJECTIVE: To establish the impact of edentulism and sociodemographic factors on the quality of life of the Salvadoran population. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Secondary cross-sectional analysis of data in 3322 users of the Public Health System of El Salvador, aged 15 to > 60 years. The variables under study were sociodemographic, edentulismo and quality of life. Edentulism was determined by clinical examination using the Oral Impact on Daily Performance scale. The statistical analysis was performed using χ2, OR, multiple regression analysis and set the significance threshold at p < 0.05. RESULTS: Partial edentulism in the upper jaw was present in 68.24% people, partial edentulism in the lower jaw was present in 72.42% people and complete edentulism was observed in 2.02% people. There were significant sex differences and a relationship between sex and quality of life (p < 0.004); the self-perception of severe/very severe impacts was greater in women. People without education or with primary or secondary education only were the most affected (p < 0.05). Tooth loss increases with age, affecting quality of life in a severe/very severe manner. Complete edentulism had greater impacts on quality of life in terms of eating (25.64%), speaking (21.15%), and socializing/enjoying contact with people (10.90%). A severe/very severe impact on quality of life of teeth lost was reported mainly by those over 60 years of age, with an average of 11 missing posterior teeth, 6 missing anterior teeth and 13 missing teeth per patient. Those missing up to 6 anterior teeth were times more likely to perceive severe/very severe impacts on quality of life than those without any missing teeth (OR:5.788). Edentulism affected the quality of life of those examined, especially the loss of upper anterior teeth.

Surveillance of invasive pneumococcal disease in Spain exploring the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic (2019-2023).

OBJECTIVES: Dynamic trends of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) including the evolution of prevalent serotypes are very useful to evaluate the impact of current and future pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) and the rise of non-vaccine serotypes. In this study, we include epidemiological patterns of S. pneumoniae before and after COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: We characterized all national IPD isolates from children and adults received at the Spanish Pneumococcal Reference Laboratory during 2019-2023. RESULTS: In the first pandemic year 2020, we found a general reduction in IPD cases across all age groups, followed by a partial resurgence in children in 2021 but not in adults. By 2022, IPD cases in children had returned to pre-pandemic levels, and partially in adults. In 2023, IPD rates surpassed those of the last pre-pandemic year. Notably, the emergence of serotype 3 is of significant concern, becoming the leading cause of IPD in both pediatric and adult populations over the last two years (2022-2023). Increase of serotype 4 in young adults occurred in the last epidemiological years. CONCLUSIONS: The COVID-19 pandemic led to a temporary decline in all IPD cases during 2020 attributable to non-pharmaceutical interventions followed by a subsequent rise. Employing PCVs with broader coverage and/or enhanced immunogenicity may be critical to mitigate the marked increase of IPD.

Societal Preferences for Meningococcal B Vaccination in Children: A Discrete Choice Experiment in Spain.

INTRODUCTION: Immunization is the most effective strategy for the prevention of invasive meningococcal disease caused by Neisseria meningitidis serogroup B (MenB); however, parents need to weigh the risk-benefit and financial impact of immunizing their children against MenB in the absence of a national immunization program (NIP). This study aimed to explore societal preferences (of parents and pediatricians) regarding the attributes of a MenB vaccine in Spain. METHODS: A discrete choice experiment (DCE) based on cross-sectional surveys was carried out to determine preferences. A literature review and scientific committee determined the six attributes related to the MenB vaccine included in the DCE: vaccination age, cost, duration, percentage of protection, adverse events probability, and expert/authority recommendation. Data were analyzed using a mixed logit model. Relative importance (RI) of attributes was calculated and compared between parents and pediatricians. RESULTS: A total of 278 parents [55.8% female, mean age 40.4 (standard deviation, SD 7.3) years] and 200 pediatricians [73.0% female, mean age 45.8 (SD 12.9) years] answered the DCE. For parents, the highest RI was attributed to vaccine cost, expert/authority recommendation, and percentage of protection (26.4%, 26.1%, and 22.9%, respectively), while for pediatricians the highest RI was assigned to percentage of protection, expert/authority recommendation, and vaccination age (27.2%, 23.7%, and 22.6%, respectively). Significant differences between parents and pediatricians were found in the RI assigned to all attributes (p < 0.001), except for vaccine recommendation. CONCLUSION: In the decision regarding MenB vaccination, cost was a driver in parental decision-making but had a low RI for pediatricians and, conversely, vaccination age was highly valued by pediatricians but was the attribute with least importance for parents. Despite these differences, expert/authority recommendation and percentage of protection were essential criteria for both groups. These results provide relevant information about MenB vaccination, highlighting the importance of considering societal preferences for NIP inclusion.

Oral health profile status and treatment needs in the Salvadoran elderly population: a cross-sectional study.

INTRODUCTION: Older adults are a highly vulnerable group in their general health condition, including oral health that can be influenced by different factors, among them, changes in oral tissues inherent to the physiological processes of aging and by systemic condition. In El Salvador, it is a group that has received little attention at the public health level. OBJECTIVE: To determine the profile of the oral health status and treatment needs of the elderly population in El Salvador. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Secondary cross-sectional analysis of data from the last oral health survey in 471 Salvadorans aged 60 years and older. The variables under study were: sociodemographics, brushing frequency, oral hygiene according to simplified oral hygiene index (OHI-S), caries experience according to decayed, missing, and filled teeth index (DMFT) modified with international caries detection and assessment system (ICDAS) criteria, periodontal status through the community periodontal index of treatment needs (CPITN), edentulism and treatment needs. Statistical analysis was conducted using chi-square test, ANOVA, z-test and linear regression (p < 0.05). RESULTS: The older adults presented poor oral hygiene, low brushing frequency, high tooth loss with an average of 16 missing teeth while one third presented total edentulism. Most of the older adults were categorized as having "poor or very Poor" oral hygiene. Almost all respondents presented some degree of periodontal disease and required restorative intervention. CONCLUSION: The oral health status of elderly Salvadoran is poor. Furthermore, the development of public policies and specific oral health strategies aimed at this population is urgent.

Exploring wealth-related inequalities in maternal and child health coverage in Latin America and the Caribbean.

BACKGROUND: Maternal and child health have shown important advances in the world in recent years. However, national averages indicators hide large inequalities in access and quality of care in population subgroups. We explore wealth-related inequalities affecting health coverage and interventions in reproductive, maternal, newborn, and child health in Latin America and the Caribbean. METHODS: We analyzed representative national surveys from 15 countries conducted between 2001 and 2016. We estimated maternal-child health coverage gaps using the Composite Coverage Index - a weighted average of interventions that include family planning, maternal and newborn care, immunizations, and treatment of sick children. We measured absolute and relative inequality to assess gaps by wealth quintile. Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to test the association between the coverage gap and population attributable risk. RESULTS: The Composite Coverage Index showed patterns of inequality favoring the wealthiest subgroups. In eight countries the national coverage was higher than the global median (78.4%; 95% CI: 73.1-83.6) and increased significantly as inequality decreased (Pearson r = 0.9; p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: There are substantial inequalities between socioeconomic groups. Reducing inequalities will improve coverage indicators for women and children. Additional health policies, programs, and practices are required to promote equity.

The public health value of vaccination for seniors in Europe.

Longer life expectancy and decreasing fertility rates mean that the proportion of older people is continually increasing worldwide, and particularly in Europe. Ageing is associated with an increase in the risk and severity of infectious diseases. These diseases are also more difficult to diagnose and manage in seniors who often have at least one comorbid condition (60% of seniors have two or more conditions). Infectious diseases increase the risk of hospitalization, loss of autonomy and death in seniors. Effective vaccines are available in Europe for infectious diseases such as influenza, pneumococcal diseases, herpes zoster, diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis. Their effectiveness has been demonstrated in terms of reducing the rates of hospitalization, disability, dependency and death. The prevention of diseases in seniors also results in savings in healthcare and societal costs each year in Europe. Despite the availability of vaccines, vaccine-preventable diseases affect millions of European citizens annually, with the greatest burden of disease occurring in seniors, and the medical and economic benefits associated with are not being achieved. Vaccination coverage rates must be improved to achieve the full benefits of vaccination of seniors in Europe.

Does the presence of caffeine in the marine environment represent an environmental risk? A regional and global study.

Caffeine is an emerging contaminant considered to be an indicator of human contamination that has been widely detected in various aquatic systems, especially in continental waters. Nevertheless, the extent of its possible environmental impact is yet to be determined. This study determined the presence of caffeine, and evaluated the environmental hazard posed by this substance, in the "Rías Gallegas", a series of costal inlets in north-west Spain which are of great ecological value and in which fishing and bivalve farming, are a significant source of income. Caffeine was found to be present at concentrations higher than the limit of quantification (LOQ=3.07ngL-1) in 15 of the 23 samples analysed, with the highest seawater concentration being 857ngL-1 (the highest measured in seawater in Spain). Six out of 22 seawater samples resulted in a hazard quotient (HQ) from chronic exposure higher than 1 with the highest being 17.14, indicating a high probability of adverse effects in the aquatic environment. Environmental Exposure Distributions (EEDs) generated from a literature review of caffeine levels reported previously in four out of the five continents, showed that 28% of all seawater samples, and 69% of all estuary water samples where caffeine has ever been measured resulted in HQ>1 for chronic exposure. Further studies into the potential adverse effects that may arise from exposure to caffeine in aquatic systems are still required. Indeed, the need to gain a more in-depth understanding of the long-term ecotoxicological effects of caffeine is essential to ensure the quality of our health and environment.

[Public health competencies and contents in Spanish undergraduate medical degrees]. / Competencias y contenidos comunes de salud pública del Grado en Medicina en las universidades españolas.

OBJECTIVE: To reach a consensus among public health faculty from various Spanish universities about the core public health competencies that should be integrated into undergraduate medical degrees. METHODS: The 2nd Forum of University Teachers was held at the Rey Juan Carlos University (Madrid, 11-12 December 2014). Twenty-four university professors and lecturers from 19 Spanish universities imparting medical degrees participated in the forum. They were distributed in three working groups during three working sessions. In the first session, they were asked to identify and classify core public health competencies for medical degrees. In the second, they were asked to propose public health contents for the identified competencies. In the third session, the participants organized these contents in thematic blocks. The results were discussed in distinct plenary sessions. RESULTS: The highest number of core competencies was identified in the activities related to the public health functions «Assessment of the population's health needs¼ and «Developing health policies¼. The final programme included basic contents organised into five units: Concept of health, public health and its determinants; Epidemiology and health research; Determinants and health problems; Strategies, interventions and policies; and health systems, clinical and healthcare management. CONCLUSIONS: The public health core competencies and contents identified in this Forum may be considered as a starting point to improve and update public health training programmes for future medical professionals.

Pneumocystis pneumonia in HIV-positive patients in Spain: epidemiology and environmental risk factors.

INTRODUCTION: Specific environmental factors may play a role in the development of Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in HIV-positive patients. The aim of this study was to estimate the PCP incidence and mortality in hospitalized HIV-positive patients in Spain during the combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) era (1997 to 2011), as well as to analyze the climatological factors and air pollution levels in relation to hospital admissions and deaths. METHODS: We carried out a retrospective study. Data were collected from the National Hospital Discharge Database and the State Meteorological Agency of Spain. A case-crossover analysis was applied to identify environmental risk factors related to hospitalizations and deaths. For each patient, climatic factors and pollution levels were assigned based on readings from the nearest meteorological station to his or her postal code. RESULTS: There were 13,139 new PCP diagnoses and 1754 deaths in hospitalized HIV-positive patients from 1997 to 2011. The PCP incidence (events per 1000 person-years) dropped from 11.6 in 1997 to 2000, to 5.4 in 2004 to 2011 (p<0.001). The mortality (events per 10,000 person-years) also decreased from 14.3 in 1997 to 2000, to 7.5 in 2004 to 2011 (p<0.001). Most hospital admissions and deaths occurred in the winter season and the fewest occurred in the summer, overlapping respectively with the lowest and highest temperatures of the year in Spain. Moreover, lower temperatures prior to PCP admission, as well as higher concentrations of NO2 and particulate matter up to 10 m in size (PM10) at the time of admission were associated with higher likelihoods of hospital admission due to PCP when two weeks, one month, 1.5 months or two months were used as controls (p<0.01). Furthermore, higher concentrations of ozone at one month (p=0.007), 1.5 months (p<0.001) and two months (p=0.006) prior to admission were associated with higher likelihoods of hospital admission with PCP. For PCP-related deaths, lower temperatures prior to admission and higher concentrations of atmospheric PM10 at the time of admission were related to higher likelihood of death when two weeks, one month and 1.5 months were used as controls (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: PCP was a significant health problem in the cART era (1997 to 2011), and PCP epidemiology was adversely influenced by colder climatological factors and higher ambient air pollution levels.

National trends in utilization and outcomes of coronary revascularization procedures among people with and without type 2 diabetes in Spain (2001-2011).

BACKGROUND: Diabetes is associated with a high risk of death due to coronary artery disease (CAD). People with diabetes suffering from CAD are frequently treated with revascularization procedures. We aim to compare trends in the use and outcomes of coronary revascularization procedures in diabetic and non-diabetic patients in Spain between 2001 and 2011. METHODS: We identified all patients who had undergone coronary revascularization procedures, percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI) and coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgeries, using national hospital discharge data. Discharges were grouped by diabetes status: type 2 diabetes and no diabetes. The incidence of discharges attributed to coronary revascularization procedures were calculated stratified by diabetes status. We calculated length of stay and in-hospital mortality (IHM). We apply joinpoint log-linear regression to identify the years in which changes in tendency occurred in the use of PCI and CABG in diabetic and non-diabetic patients. Multivariate analysis was adjusted by age, sex, year and comorbidity (Charlson comorbidity index). RESULTS: From 2001 to 2011, 434,108 PCIs and 79,986 CABGs were performed. According to the results of the joinpoint analysis, we found that sex and age-adjusted use of PCI increased by 31.4% per year from 2001 to 2003, by 15.9% per year from 2003 to 2006 and by 3.8% per year from 2006 to 2011 in patients with diabetes. IHM among patients with diabetes who underwent a PCI did not change significantly over the entire study period (OR 0.99; 95% CI 0.97-1.00).Among patients with diabetes who underwent a CABG, the sex and age-adjusted CABG incidence rate increased by 10.4% per year from 2001 to 2003, and then decreased by 1.1% through 2011. Diabetic patients who underwent a CABG had a 0.67 (95% CI 0.63-0.71) times lower probability of dying during hospitalization than those without diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: The annual percent change in PCI procedures increased in diabetic and non-diabetic patients. Higher comorbidity and the female gender are associated with a higher IHM in PCI procedures. In diabetic and non-diabetic patients, we found a decrease in the use of CABG procedures. IHM was higher in patients without diabetes than in those with diabetes.

National trends over one decade in hospitalization for acute myocardial infarction among Spanish adults with type 2 diabetes: cumulative incidence, outcomes and use of percutaneous coronary intervention.

BACKGROUND: This study aims to describe trends in the rate of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and use of percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI) in patients with and without type 2 diabetes in Spain, 2001-2010. METHODS: We selected all patients with a discharge of AMI using national hospital discharge data. Discharges were grouped by diabetes status: type 2 diabetes and no diabetes. In both groups PCIs were identified. The cumulative incidence of discharges attributed to AMI were calculated overall and stratified by diabetes status and year. We calculated length of stay and in-hospital mortality (IHM). Use of PCI was calculated stratified by diabetes status. Multivariate analysis was adjusted by age, sex, year and comorbidity. RESULTS: From 2001 to 2010, 513,517 discharges with AMI were identified (30.3% with type 2 diabetes). The cumulative incidence of discharges due to AMI in diabetics patients increased (56.3 in 2001 to 71 cases per 100,000 in 2004), then decreased to 61.9 in 2010. Diabetic patients had significantly higher IHM (OR, 1.14; 95%CI, 1.05-1.17). The proportion of diabetic patients that underwent PCI increased from 11.9% in 2001 to 41.6% in 2010. Adjusted incidence of discharge in patients with diabetes who underwent PCI increased significantly (IRR, 3.49; 95%CI, 3.30-3.69). The IHM among diabetics patients who underwent a PCI did not change significantly over time. CONCLUSIONS: AMI hospitalization rates increased initially but declining slowly. From 2001 to 2010 the proportion of diabetic patients who undergo a PCI increased almost four-fold. Older age and more comorbidity may explain why IHM did not improve after a PCI.

The burden of hospitalizations for anus and penis neoplasm in Spain (1997-2008).

An epidemiological retrospective study has been performed to assess the burden of hospitalization by anus and penis neoplasm in the general population in Spain. All hospital discharges and deaths related to anal malign neoplasm and penile malign neoplasm from 1997 to 2008 in Spain were obtained. A total of 19,608 hospital admissions were recorded during the study period: 11,965 were related to anal malign neoplasm (4,992 in women and 6,973 in men) and 7,643 to penis malignant neoplasm. This corresponds to a hospitalization rate of 1.97 (CI 95%: 1.91-2.02) hospitalizations per 100,000 women/ year, 2.84 (CI 95%: 2.77-2.91) hospitalizations per 100,000 men/ year and 3.11 (CI 95%: 3.04- 3.18) hospitalizations per 100,000 men/ year, respectively during the study period.   The hospitalization rate increased significantly during the study period in all locations. It also increased significantly with age for all locations. Hospitalization and mortality rates in men were 50% higher than in women A total of 530 deaths related to penis malignant neoplasm and 738 deaths related to anus malignant neoplasm in men and 488 in women were reported during the 12-y study period. Although a decrease in smoking prevalence has led to a decrease in the incidence of cancers in the last decade, the hospitalizations due to anal and penile malign neoplasm have not declined in our study. This might be attributed to a high prevalence of HPV infection in these particular genital malign neoplasms.

Impact of comorbidities and surgery on health related transitions in pancreatic cancer admissions: a multi state model.

AIM: Pancreatic cancer is one of the least common tumors, nevertheless it is one of the most lethal. This lethality is mainly due to the fact that the vast majority of patients are diagnosed in an advanced stage. The objective of this work is investigate how different covariates affect the transition to death after a first admission due to pancreatic cancer. METHODS: We analyze the impact of different factors on health related transitions after a first hospital admission related to pancreatic cancer based on a multi state model. RESULTS: Transitions of interest include the transition to death (i.e. survival time), but also the time between a first admission and discharge or between discharge and readmission. We consider comorbidities, the type of admission, and especially the performance of pancreas surgery as covariates with a potential effect on the transition intensities. CONCLUSION: The multi state model allows for a very detailed analysis since all covariate effects may change depending on the current state of the patient.

Trend in cervical cancer screening in Spain (2003-2009) and predictors of adherence.

Cervical cancer remains a public health problem in developed countries. Early detection of both premalignant lesions and cervical cancer through an appropriate screening programme may decrease its incidence and mortality. High rates of participation are essential to ensure the desired impact on the population. The aims of this study were to assess the use of Pap smears in Spain in 2009 to identify factors associated with screening adherence (predictors) and assess the trend from 2003 to 2009. We included women surveyed in the European Health Interview Survey for Spain. Cervical cancer screening included self-reported Pap smears over the last 3 years. The target age range was 25-64 years. The following independent variables were analysed: sociodemographic variables, chronic conditions, and lifestyle. Predictors of Pap smear adherence were explored using multivariate logistic regression. The screening coverage in the target population was 66.1% (95% confidence interval: 64.8-67.4). Undergoing Pap smears was associated positively with the following: being married, higher levels of education and income, having visited a general practitioner in previous weeks, and suffering from musculoskeletal disease. Belonging to an older age group (55-64 years) and obesity were associated with nonadherence to Pap smears. We did not find significant differences when we compared cervical cancer screening adherence over time since 2003. Adherence to cervical cancer screening in Spain does not seem to be improving. An effort must be made, and the implementation of population-based programmes instead of opportunistic screening could be considered, to recruit women who are less likely to undergo screening.

Use of dental care and prevalence of caries among immigrant and Spanish-born children.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this paper was to describe the use of dental services and the prevalence of dental caries in children living in Madrid, Spain. METHODS: A descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted using data from the Madrid City Health Survey. The questions asked were: (1) When was the last time your child visited the dentist? (2) What was the reason for your child's last visit? and (3) Is your child currently suffering from caries, fillings, or bleeding from the gums when brushing? The independent variables included: sex; age; education level; and nationality. RESULTS: Data from 960 children (approximately 27% of whom were immigrants) were analyzed. Over the last year, approximately 59% of the children had received dental care and 28% suffered from caries. After multivariate analysis, we observed that 3- to 6-year-old children, immigrants, and children of parents with low education levels are more likely not to have received dental care during the last year. We also found that children are more likely to suffer from caries as they get older and if they are immigrants. CONCLUSIONS: Being an immigrant and from a lower education level typically results in a less frequent use of dental health services, and children of immigrants have a greater risk of suffering from dental caries. It is essential to investigate the reasons why and introduce strategies to reduce barriers to dental health access among immigrants.

Epidemiology of leishmaniasis in Spain based on hospitalization records (1997-2008).

All the records from the Spanish information system for hospital data of patients diagnosed with leishmaniasis during a 12-year period (1997-2008) were studied. The 2,028 individuals were hospitalized because of leishmaniasis, as indicated by the principal diagnostic code. The average hospitalization rate was 0.41/100,000 inhabitants. One-third of them were co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The incidence of hospitalization in the adult population with leishmaniasis co-infected with HIV increased with age, peaked at 35-39 years of age and subsequently declined. In the pediatric population, all leishmaniasis cases occurred in HIV-negative children. Incidence of hospitalizations was highest in Madrid and in the Mediterranean coast. The cost per inpatient hospital care was $9,601 corresponding to an annual direct cost of more than $1.5 million for inpatient care alone. The economical burden of leishmaniasis is not neglectable and in the 12-year study period it represented more than $19 million.

Spanish nurses' attitudes towards research and perceived barriers and facilitators of research utilisation: a comparative survey of nurses with and without experience as principal investigators.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVE: To examine attitudes towards research and perceived barriers and facilitators of research utilisation in clinical practice in a broad cross-section of Spanish nurses. BACKGROUND: Nurses' attitudes towards research are critical in determining whether study findings are used to improve practice. DESIGN: Cross-sectional comparative survey in Hospitals, Primary Care Centres and University-affiliated schools of nursing. METHODS: Surveys were completed by 917 nurses: 69 who received funding from the Spanish national agency (1998-2004) and a nationally representative sample of 848 nurses who did not have the same research experience (the Comparison group). Two instruments (BARRIERS and Attitudes towards nursing research) were translated and culturally adapted for use in Spain. A descriptive analysis of demographic and practice characteristics was performed. Total scale scores, as well as subscale scores, were computed and compared across the two groups using one-way analysis of variance (anova) and multivariate analysis of variance (manova) with post hoc tests. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were computed between the total tool scores and subscales measuring barriers and attitudes in both groups. RESULTS: The investigators differed from other nurses on several demographic and work characteristics (more males, older age and more likely to work a fixed day shift schedule). On the whole, investigators showed more favourable attitudes but perceived several elements as posing greater barriers to research utilisation than the Comparison groups. Across all respondents, issues related to the quality of research were rated as the greatest barriers to research utilisation, followed by organisational barriers, barriers involving the communication of findings and finally, those related to nurses' values, awareness and skills. CONCLUSIONS: Very similar profiles of perceptions and attitudes regarding research were found in these samples of Spanish nurses relative to those from other countries in earlier reports. Nurses who had experience conducting research demonstrated more favourable research-related attitudes and perceived barriers differently than those without such experience. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: Understanding different organisational and experience perspectives is important to identify challenges and opportunities to ensure research utilisation in clinical practice.

The burden of hospitalisations for community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and pneumococcal pneumonia in adults in Spain (2003-2007).

All hospital discharges and deaths related to CAP and pneumococcal-pneumonia from adults over 50 from 2003 to 2007 in Spain were obtained. Among the 447,670 Pneumonia-all causes discharges 17% were pneumococcal pneumonia. The annual hospitalisation rate was 6.27 and 1.09 cases per 1000, respectively. 75,932 deaths for Pneumonia-all causes and 9062 for pneumococcal-pneumonia were reported. CAP and pneumococcal pneumonia are major causes of morbidity and mortality in Spain, especially in the elderly. Despite current preventive measures, no significant changes in hospitalisation, mortality and case-fatality rates were found over the study period. Future preventive measures, like vaccination, could overcome these limitations.

Changes in the epidemiology of hepatitis A in Spain (2005­2008): trends of acute hepatitis A hospitalizations, comorbidities, and costs associated with the hospitalization.

INTRODUCTION: The objective of this study is to analyze data related to hospitalization, comorbidities, median stays and costs associated with the hospitalization cases of hepatitis A in Spain, during the 2005-2008 periods. METHODS: A retrospective study of the characteristics of acute hepatitis A patients admitted to Spanish hospitals was performed using the minimum basic dataset. Costs were calculated using the diagnosis-related groups for the disease. RESULTS: The total number of hospitalized patients diagnosed with acute hepatitis A was 2395 (2.66/100,000 inhabitants); 61.5% were diagnosed in men. The highest rate corresponds to the group aged 20-39 years (4.01/100,000 inhabitants). When compared with year 2005 ascending tendencies in hospitalization was found for the year 2008 (incidence rate ratio 1.36 confidence interval 95% 1.32-1.39). Twenty-four deaths (1%) were reported out of the total of hospitalized patients. The median hospital stay was 5 days. An increase of cost from euro 1.272.608 in the year 2005 to euro 2.586.657 in 2008 was observed. Therefore, the total cost derived from these hospitalizations, above the retail price index, has increased by 90%. CONCLUSION: The incidence of hospitalized patients diagnosed with acute hepatitis A in Spain has remained stable from 2005 to 2007 and increased significantly in the year 2008. Therefore, a change in the epidemiology of hepatitis A may be taking place in Spain and this disease could become a public problem in the young adult population. It is necessary to conduct a cost-effectiveness study to assess the need for including hepatitis A in the universal immunizations schedule.