Detection and classification of the integrative conjugative elements of Lactococcus lactis.

Lactococcus lactis is widely applied by the dairy industry for the fermentation of milk into products such as cheese. Adaptation of L. lactis to the dairy environment often depends on functions encoded by mobile genetic elements (MGEs) such as plasmids. Other L. lactis MGEs that contribute to industrially relevant traits like antimicrobial production and carbohydrate utilization capacities belong to the integrative conjugative elements (ICE). Here we investigate the prevalence of ICEs in L. lactis using an automated search engine that detects colocalized, ICE-associated core-functions (involved in conjugation or mobilization) in lactococcal genomes. This approach enabled the detection of 36 candidate-ICEs in 69 L. lactis genomes. By phylogenetic analysis of conserved protein functions encoded in all lactococcal ICEs, these 36 ICEs could be classified in three main ICE-families that encompass 7 distinguishable ICE-integrases and are characterized by apparent modular-exchangeability and plasticity. Finally, we demonstrate that phylogenetic analysis of the conjugation-associated VirB4 ATPase function differentiates ICE- and plasmid-derived conjugation systems, indicating that conjugal transfer of lactococcal ICEs and plasmids involves genetically distinct machineries. Our genomic analysis and sequence-based classification of lactococcal ICEs creates a comprehensive overview of the conserved functional repertoires encoded by this family of MGEs in L. lactis, which can facilitate the future exploitation of the functional traits they encode by ICE mobilization to appropriate starter culture strains.

Visualisation of dCas9 target search in vivo using an open-microscopy framework.

CRISPR-Cas9 is widely used in genomic editing, but the kinetics of target search and its relation to the cellular concentration of Cas9 have remained elusive. Effective target search requires constant screening of the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) and a 30 ms upper limit for screening was recently found. To further quantify the rapid switching between DNA-bound and freely-diffusing states of dCas9, we developed an open-microscopy framework, the miCube, and introduce Monte-Carlo diffusion distribution analysis (MC-DDA). Our analysis reveals that dCas9 is screening PAMs 40% of the time in Gram-positive Lactoccous lactis, averaging 17 ± 4 ms per binding event. Using heterogeneous dCas9 expression, we determine the number of cellular target-containing plasmids and derive the copy number dependent Cas9 cleavage. Furthermore, we show that dCas9 is not irreversibly bound to target sites but can still interfere with plasmid replication. Taken together, our quantitative data facilitates further optimization of the CRISPR-Cas toolbox.

Evaluating single-particle tracking by photo-activation localization microscopy (sptPALM) in Lactococcus lactis.

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are frequently used in food fermentation and are invaluable for the taste and nutritional value of the fermentation end-product. To gain a better understanding of underlying biochemical and microbiological mechanisms and cell-to-cell variability in LABs, single-molecule techniques such as single-particle tracking photo-activation localization microscopy (sptPALM) hold great promises but are not yet employed due to the lack of detailed protocols and suitable assays. Here, we qualitatively test various fluorescent proteins including variants that are photoactivatable and therefore suitable for sptPALM measurements in Lactococcus lactis, a key LAB for the dairy industry. In particular, we fused PAmCherry2 to dCas9 allowing the successful tracking of single dCas9 proteins, whilst the dCas9 chimeras bound to specific guide RNAs retained their gene silencing ability in vivo. The diffusional information of the dCas9 without any targets showed different mechanistic states of dCas9: freely diffusing, bound to DNA, or transiently interacting with DNA. The capability of performing sptPALM with dCas9 in L. lactis can lead to a better, general understanding of CRISPR-Cas systems as well as paving the way for CRISPR-Cas based interrogations of cellular functions in LABs.

Renaissance of traditional DNA transfer strategies for improvement of industrial lactic acid bacteria.

The ever-expanding genomic insight in natural diversity of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) has revived the industrial interest in traditional and natural genetic mobilization methodologies. Here, we review recent advances in horizontal gene transfer processes in LAB, including natural competence, conjugation, and phage transduction. In addition, we envision the possibilities for industrial strain improvement arising from the recent discoveries of molecular exchanges between bacteria through nanotubes and extracellular vesicles, as well as the constantly expanding genome editing possibilities using the CRISPR-Cas technology.

Versatile Cas9-Driven Subpopulation Selection Toolbox for Lactococcus lactis.

CRISPR-Cas9 technology has been exploited for the removal or replacement of genetic elements in a wide range of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Here, we describe the extension of the Cas9 application toolbox to the industrially important dairy species Lactococcus lactis The Cas9 expression vector pLABTarget, encoding the Streptocccus pyogenes Cas9 under the control of a constitutive promoter, was constructed, allowing plug and play introduction of short guide RNA (sgRNA) sequences to target specific genetic loci. Introduction of a pepN-targeting derivative of pLABTarget into L. lactis strain MG1363 led to a strong reduction in the number of transformants obtained, which did not occur in a pepN deletion derivative of the same strain, demonstrating the specificity and lethality of the Cas9-mediated double-strand breaks in the lactococcal chromosome. Moreover, the same pLABTarget derivative allowed the selection of a pepN deletion subpopulation from its corresponding single-crossover plasmid integrant precursor, accelerating the construction and selection of gene-specific deletion derivatives in L. lactis Finally, pLABTarget, which contained sgRNAs designed to target mobile genetic elements, allowed the effective curing of plasmids, prophages, and integrative conjugative elements (ICEs). These results establish that pLABTarget enables the effective exploitation of Cas9 targeting in L. lactis, while the broad-host-range vector used suggests that this toolbox could readily be expanded to other Gram-positive bacteria.IMPORTANCE Mobile genetic elements in Lactococcus lactis and other lactic acid bacteria (LAB) play an important role in dairy fermentation, having both positive and detrimental effects during the production of fermented dairy products. The pLABTarget vector offers an efficient cloning platform for Cas9 application in lactic acid bacteria. Targeting Cas9 toward mobile genetic elements enabled their effective curing, which is of particular interest in the context of potentially problematic prophages present in a strain. Moreover, Cas9 targeting of other mobile genetic elements enables the deciphering of their contribution to dairy fermentation processes and further establishment of their importance for product characteristics.