Focally perfused succinate potentiates brain metabolism in head injury patients.

Following traumatic brain injury, complex cerebral energy perturbations occur. Correlating with unfavourable outcome, high brain extracellular lactate/pyruvate ratio suggests hypoxic metabolism and/or mitochondrial dysfunction. We investigated whether focal administration of succinate, a tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediate interacting directly with the mitochondrial electron transport chain, could improve cerebral metabolism. Microdialysis perfused disodium 2,3-13C2 succinate (12 mmol/L) for 24 h into nine sedated traumatic brain injury patients' brains, with simultaneous microdialysate collection for ISCUS analysis of energy metabolism biomarkers (nine patients) and nuclear magnetic resonance of 13C-labelled metabolites (six patients). Metabolites 2,3-13C2 malate and 2,3-13C2 glutamine indicated tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism, and 2,3-13C2 lactate suggested tricarboxylic acid cycle spinout of pyruvate (by malic enzyme or phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and pyruvate kinase), then lactate dehydrogenase-mediated conversion to lactate. Versus baseline, succinate perfusion significantly decreased lactate/pyruvate ratio (p = 0.015), mean difference -12%, due to increased pyruvate concentration (+17%); lactate changed little (-3%); concentrations decreased for glutamate (-43%) (p = 0.018) and glucose (-15%) (p = 0.038). Lower lactate/pyruvate ratio suggests better redox status: cytosolic NADH recycled to NAD+ by mitochondrial shuttles (malate-aspartate and/or glycerol 3-phosphate), diminishing lactate dehydrogenase-mediated pyruvate-to-lactate conversion, and lowering glutamate. Glucose decrease suggests improved utilisation. Direct tricarboxylic acid cycle supplementation with 2,3-13C2 succinate improved human traumatic brain injury brain chemistry, indicated by biomarkers and 13C-labelling patterns in metabolites.

Location-specific immunodetection of cocaine on banknotes.

A novel in-gel bioanalytical immunodetection method has been developed to determine both the presence and the location of cocaine on the surface of banknotes. The cocaine was 'fixed' to the surface of the banknote via a coating of a polyacrylamide gel matrix. Immunostaining of the immobilised cocaine on the banknote surface was performed using an anti-cocaine primary antibody, either pre-labelled with horse radish peroxidase (HRP) or in conjunction with a HRP-labelled secondary antibody. Visualisation of the location of the cocaine was achieved through chemiluminescence imaging of the banknote following application of a chemiluminescent substrate. The novel method was applied to the detection of cocaine on partial and whole banknote samples obtained from general circulation. Newly minted banknotes, with or without spiked cocaine, were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. The results obtained, for the first time, demonstrate the successful location-specific immunostaining of cocaine on banknotes. A preliminary analysis of six UK banknotes, obtained from general circulation, suggests that cocaine can be present at variable locations across the whole of the banknote.

Optimisation of immuno-gold nanoparticle complexes for antigen detection.

The aim of this investigation was to define the optimum method of binding antibodies to the surface of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and then to apply the optimised antibody-functionalised AuNPs for the detection of a target antigen. A detailed investigation of three different techniques for the functionalisation of AuNPs with anti-cocaine antibody and methods for the subsequent characterisation of the antibody-functionalised AuNP are reported. The addition of anti-cocaine antibody onto the AuNP surface was facilitated by either: a polyethylene glycol (PEG) linker with a COOH terminal functional group; an aminated PEG ligand; or an N-succinimidyl 3-(2-pyridyldithio)-propionate (SPDP)-Protein A/G intermediate. Characterisation of the functionalised particles was performed using transmission electron microscopy, UV-Visible spectrophotometry and by agarose gel electrophoresis. In addition, the cocaine binding efficacy of the resultant AuNPs and their cocaine-binding capacity was determined using a cocaine-horseradish peroxidase conjugate, and by the application of a microtiter plate-based immunoassay. The results showed that the number of antibody per particle was the highest when the AuNP were functionalised with the Protein A/G intermediate. As compared to free antibody, the cocaine binding efficacy was significantly enhanced using the AuNP-Protein A/G-antibody complex. This optimal antibody-antigen binding efficacy is thought to be the result of the large number of antibody per particle and the oriented binding of the antibody to the Protein A/G on the AuNP surface. These results highlight the ideal immuno-gold nanoparticle characteristics for the detection of target antigens such as cocaine.

Extracellular N-Acetylaspartate in Human Traumatic Brain Injury.

N-acetylaspartate (NAA) is an amino acid derivative primarily located in the neurons of the adult brain. The function of NAA is incompletely understood. Decrease in brain tissue NAA is presently considered symptomatic and a potential biomarker of acute and chronic neuropathological conditions. The aim of this study was to use microdialysis to investigate the behavior of extracellular NAA (eNAA) levels after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Sampling for this study was performed using cerebral microdialysis catheters (M Dialysis 71) perfused at 0.3 µL/min. Extracellular NAA was measured in microdialysates by high-performance liquid chromatography in 30 patients with severe TBI and for comparison, in radiographically "normal" areas of brain in six non-TBI neurosurgical patients. We established a detailed temporal eNAA profile in eight of the severe TBI patients. Microdialysate concentrations of glucose, lactate, pyruvate, glutamate, and glycerol were measured on an ISCUS clinical microdialysis analyzer. Here, we show that the temporal profile of microdialysate eNAA was characterized by highest levels in the earliest time-points post-injury, followed by a steady decline; beyond 70 h post-injury, average levels were 40% lower than those measured in non-TBI patients. There was a significant inverse correlation between concentrations of eNAA and pyruvate; eNAA showed significant positive correlations with glycerol and the lactate/pyruvate (L/P) ratio measured in microdialysates. The results of this on-going study suggest that changes in eNAA after TBI relate to the release of intracellular components, possibly due to neuronal death or injury, as well as to adverse brain energy metabolism.

A competitive enzyme immunoassay for the quantitative detection of cocaine from banknotes and latent fingermarks.

A sensitive and versatile competitive enzyme immunoassay (cEIA) has been developed for the quantitative detection of cocaine in complex forensic samples. Polyclonal anti-cocaine antibody was purified from serum and deposited onto microtiter plates. The concentration of the cocaine antibody adsorbed onto the plates, and the dilution of the cocaine-HRP hapten were both studied to achieve an optimised immunoassay. The method was successfully used to quantify cocaine in extracts taken from both paper currency and latent fingermarks. The limit of detection (LOD) of 0.162ngmL(-1) achieved with the assay compares favourably to that of conventional chromatography-mass spectroscopy techniques, with an appropriate sensitivity for the quantification of cocaine at the low concentrations present in some forensic samples. The cEIA was directly compared to LC-MS for the analysis of ten UK banknote samples. The results obtained from both techniques were statistically similar, suggesting that the immunoassay was unaffected by cross-reactivity with potentially interfering compounds. The cEIA was used also for the detection of cocaine in extracts from latent fingermarks. The results obtained were compared to the cocaine concentrations detected in oral fluid sampled from the same individual. Using the cEIA, we have shown, for the first time, that endogeneously excreted cocaine can be detected and quantified from a single latent fingermark. Additionally, it has been shown that the presence of cocaine, at similar concentrations, in more than one latent fingermark from the same individual can be linked with those concentrations found in oral fluid. These results show that detection of drugs in latent fingermarks could directly indicate whether an individual has consumed the drug. The specificity and feasibility of measuring low concentrations of cocaine in complex forensic samples demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of the assay. The immunoassay presents a simple and cost-effective alternative to the current mass spectrometry based techniques for the quantitation of cocaine at forensically significant concentrations.

Notch signaling does not regulate segmentation in the honeybee, Apis mellifera.

Notch signaling has been implicated in the segmentation of vertebrates but is not involved in segmentation in Drosophila. Recent evidence, however, implies that Notch signaling regulates segmentation in some Arthropods, including an insect, and that Notch signaling regulated segmentation in the common ancestor of Vertebrates and Arthropods. Notch signaling regulates clock-like formation of segments in both groups, a phenomenon not seen in Drosophila. We present evidence that Notch signaling components are expressed in a pattern implying a role in segmentation in honeybees, where the expression of genes involved in segmentation are modulated in a temporal way. Despite this, pharmacological investigation and RNA interference experiments indicate that Notch signaling does not regulate segmentation in honeybees, but instead regulates patterning within segments after segmentation itself has occurred. Notch signaling thus does not regulate segmentation in holometabolous insects, even when segments appear to form in anterior-posterior sequence.