3D revisualization: a new method to revisit segmented data.

3D visualization and segmentation are increasingly widely used in physical, biological and medical science, facilitating advanced investigative methodologies. However, the integration and reproduction of segmented volumes or results across the spectrum of mainstream 3D visualization platforms remain hindered by compatibility constraints. These barriers not only challenge the replication of findings but also obstruct the process of cross-validating the accuracy of 3D visualization outputs. To address this gap, we developed an innovative revisualization method implemented within the open-source framework of Drishti, a 3D visualization software. Leveraging four animal samples alongside three mainstream 3D visualization platforms as case studies, our method demonstrates the seamless transferability of segmented results into Drishti. This capability effectively fosters a new avenue for authentication and enhanced scrutiny of segmented data. By facilitating this interoperability, our approach underscores the potential for significant advancements in accuracy validation and collaborative research efforts across diverse scientific domains.

Describing and Sharing Molecular Visualizations Using the MolViewSpec Toolkit.

With the ever-expanding toolkit of molecular viewers, the ability to visualize macromolecular structures has never been more accessible. Yet, the idiosyncratic technical intricacies across tools and the integration complexities associated with handling structure annotation data present significant barriers to seamless interoperability and steep learning curves for many users. The necessity for reproducible data visualizations is at the forefront of the current challenges. Recently, we introduced MolViewSpec (homepage: https://molstar.org/mol-view-spec/, GitHub project: https://github.com/molstar/mol-view-spec), a specification approach that defines molecular visualizations, decoupling them from the varying implementation details of different molecular viewers. Through the protocols presented herein, we demonstrate how to use MolViewSpec and its 3D view-building Python library for creating sophisticated, customized 3D views covering all standard molecular visualizations. MolViewSpec supports representations like cartoon and ball-and-stick with coloring, labeling, and applying complex transformations such as superposition to any macromolecular structure file in mmCIF, BinaryCIF, and PDB formats. These examples showcase progress towards reusability and interoperability of molecular 3D visualization in an era when handling molecular structures at scale is a timely and pressing matter in structural bioinformatics as well as research and education across the life sciences. © 2024 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Creating a MolViewSpec view using the MolViewSpec Python package Basic Protocol 2: Creating a MolViewSpec view with reference to MolViewSpec annotation files Basic Protocol 3: Creating a MolViewSpec view with labels and other advanced features Support Protocol 1: Computing rotation and translation vectors Support Protocol 2: Creating a MolViewSpec annotation file.

Brain image data processing using collaborative data workflows on Texera.

In the realm of neuroscience, mapping the three-dimensional (3D) neural circuitry and architecture of the brain is important for advancing our understanding of neural circuit organization and function. This study presents a novel pipeline that transforms mouse brain samples into detailed 3D brain models using a collaborative data analytics platform called "Texera." The user-friendly Texera platform allows for effective interdisciplinary collaboration between team members in neuroscience, computer vision, and data processing. Our pipeline utilizes the tile images from a serial two-photon tomography/TissueCyte system, then stitches tile images into brain section images, and constructs 3D whole-brain image datasets. The resulting 3D data supports downstream analyses, including 3D whole-brain registration, atlas-based segmentation, cell counting, and high-resolution volumetric visualization. Using this platform, we implemented specialized optimization methods and obtained significant performance enhancement in workflow operations. We expect the neuroscience community can adopt our approach for large-scale image-based data processing and analysis.

Microscope-Based Augmented Reality: A New Approach in Intraoperative 3D Visualization in Microvascular Decompression?

Neurovascular compression (NVC) syndromes such as trigeminal neuralgia (TN) are causally treated with microvascular decompression (MVD). Semiautomatic segmentation of high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data and constructive interference in steady state (CISS)/time-of-flight (TOF) sequences are utilized for the three-dimensional (3D) visualization of underlying causative vessels at the root entry zones of the relevant cranial nerves. Augmented reality (AR) of neurovascular structures was introduced especially in the resection of brain tumors or aneurysmatic operations. In this report, the potential feasibility of the implementation of microscope-based AR into the intraoperative microsurgical set-up of MVD was investigated. This article recommends the preoperative evaluation of 3D visualization besides the microscopical view of the surgeon. The implementation of multiple imaging data by AR into the operating microscope may afflict the experienced surgeon's view, which should be examined prospectively.

PhosNetVis: a web-based tool for fast kinase-substrate enrichment analysis and interactive 2D/3D network visualizations of phosphoproteomics data.

Protein phosphorylation involves the reversible modification of a protein (substrate) residue by another protein (kinase). Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry studies are rapidly generating massive protein phosphorylation datasets across multiple conditions. Researchers then must infer kinases responsible for changes in phosphosites of each substrate. However, tools that infer kinase-substrate interactions (KSIs) are not optimized to interactively explore the resulting large and complex networks, significant phosphosites, and states. There is thus an unmet need for a tool that facilitates user-friendly analysis, interactive exploration, visualization, and communication of phosphoproteomics datasets. We present PhosNetVis, a web-based tool for researchers of all computational skill levels to easily infer, generate and interactively explore KSI networks in 2D or 3D by streamlining phosphoproteomics data analysis steps within a single tool. PhostNetVis lowers barriers for researchers in rapidly generating high-quality visualizations to gain biological insights from their phosphoproteomics datasets. It is available at: https://gumuslab.github.io/PhosNetVis/.

Using design thinking to create and implement a 3D digital library of anatomical specimens.

Design thinking (DT) is a five-stage process (empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test) that guides the creation of user-centered solutions to complex problems. DT is in common use outside of science but has rarely been applied to anatomical education. The use of DT in this study identified the need for flexible access to anatomical specimens outside of the anatomy laboratory and guided the creation of a digital library of three-dimensional (3D) anatomical specimens (3D Anatomy Viewer). To test whether the resource was fit for purpose, a mixed-methods student evaluation was undertaken. Student surveys (n = 46) were employed using the system usability scale (SUS) and an unvalidated acceptability questionnaire. These verified that 3D Anatomy Viewer was usable (SUS of 72%) and acceptable (agreement range of 77%-93% on all Likert-type survey statements, Cronbach's alpha = 0.929). Supplementary interviews (n = 5) were analyzed through content analysis and revealed three main themes: (1) a credible online supplementary learning resource; (2) learning anatomy with 3D realism and interactivity; (3) user recommendations for expanding the number of anatomical models, test questions, and gamification elements. These data demonstrate that a DT framework can be successfully applied to anatomical education for creation of a practical learning resource. Anatomy educators should consider employing a DT framework where student-centered solutions to learner needs are required.

Digital Twin Smart City: Integrating IFC and CityGML with Semantic Graph for Advanced 3D City Model Visualization.

The growing interest in building data management, especially the building information model (BIM), has significantly influenced urban management, materials supply chain analysis, documentation, and storage. However, the integration of BIM into 3D GIS tools is becoming more common, showing progress beyond the traditional problem. To address this, this study proposes data transformation methods involving mapping between three domains: industry foundation classes (IFC), city geometry markup language (CityGML), and web ontology framework (OWL)/resource description framework (RDF). Initially, IFC data are converted to CityGML format using the feature manipulation engine (FME) at CityGML standard's levels of detail 4 (LOD4) to enhance BIM data interoperability. Subsequently, CityGML is converted to the OWL/RDF diagram format to validate the proposed BIM conversion process. To ensure integration between BIM and GIS, geometric data and information are visualized through Cesium Ion web services and Unreal Engine. Additionally, an RDF graph is applied to analyze the association between the semantic mapping of the CityGML standard, with Neo4j (a graph database management system) utilized for visualization. The study's results demonstrate that the proposed data transformation methods significantly improve the interoperability and visualization of 3D city models, facilitating better urban management and planning.

[Evaluation of augmented reality technology in the recognizing of oral and maxillofacial anatomy].

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the outcome of Augmented reality technology in the recognizing of oral and maxillofacial anatomy. METHODS: This study was conducted on the undergraduate students in Peking University School of Stomatology who were learning oral and maxillofacial anatomy. The image data were selected according to the experiment content, and the important blood vessels and bone tissue structures, such as upper and lower jaws, neck arteries and veins were reconstructed in 3D(3-dimensional) by digital software to generate experiment models, and the reconstructed models were encrypted and stored in the cloud. The QR (quick response) code corresponding to the 3D model was scanned by a networked mobile device to obtain augmented reality images to assist experimenters in teaching and subjects in recognizing. Augmented reality technology was applied in both the theoretical explanation and cadaveric dissection respectively. Subjects' feedback was collected in the form of a post-class questionnaire to evaluate the effectiveness of augmented reality technology-assisted recognizing. RESULTS: In the study, 83 undergraduate students were included as subjects in this study. Augmented reality technology could be successfully applied in the recognizing of oral and maxillofacial anatomy. All the subjects could scan the QR code through a connected mobile device to get the 3D anatomy model from the cloud, and zoom in/out/rotate the model on the mobile. Augmented reality technology could provide personalized 3D model, based on learners' needs and abilities. The results of likert scale showed that augmented reality technology was highly recognized by the students (9.19 points), and got high scores in terms of forming a three-dimensional sense and stimulating the enthusiasm for learning (9.01 and 8.85 points respectively). CONCLUSION: Augmented reality technology can realize the three-dimensional visualization of important structures of oral and maxillofacial anatomy and stimulate students' enthusiasm for learning. Besides, it can assist students in building three-dimensional space imagination of the anatomy of oral and maxillofacial area. The application of augmented reality technology achieves favorable effect in the recognizing of oral and maxillofacial anatomy.

Multisensory Extended Reality Applications Offer Benefits for Volumetric Biomedical Image Analysis in Research and Medicine.

3D data from high-resolution volumetric imaging is a central resource for diagnosis and treatment in modern medicine. While the fast development of AI enhances imaging and analysis, commonly used visualization methods lag far behind. Recent research used extended reality (XR) for perceiving 3D images with visual depth perception and touch but used restrictive haptic devices. While unrestricted touch benefits volumetric data examination, implementing natural haptic interaction with XR is challenging. The research question is whether a multisensory XR application with intuitive haptic interaction adds value and should be pursued. In a study, 24 experts for biomedical images in research and medicine explored 3D medical shapes with 3 applications: a multisensory virtual reality (VR) prototype using haptic gloves, a simple VR prototype using controllers, and a standard PC application. Results of standardized questionnaires showed no significant differences between all application types regarding usability and no significant difference between both VR applications regarding presence. Participants agreed to statements that VR visualizations provide better depth information, using the hands instead of controllers simplifies data exploration, the multisensory VR prototype allows intuitive data exploration, and it is beneficial over traditional data examination methods. While most participants mentioned manual interaction as the best aspect, they also found it the most improvable. We conclude that a multisensory XR application with improved manual interaction adds value for volumetric biomedical data examination. We will proceed with our open-source research project ISH3DE (Intuitive Stereoptic Haptic 3D Data Exploration) to serve medical education, therapeutic decisions, surgery preparations, or research data analysis.

Comparative evaluation of volumetry estimation from plain and contrast enhanced computed tomography liver images.

OBJECTIVES: Surgery planning for liver tumour is carried out using contrast enhanced computed tomography (CECT) images to determine the optimal resection strategy and to assess the volume of liver and tumour. Current surgery planning tools interpret even the functioning liver cells present within the tumour boundary as tumour. Plain CT images provide inadequate information for treatment planning. This work attempts to address two shortcomings of existing surgery planning tools: (i) to delineate functioning liver cells from the non-functioning tumourous tissues within the tumour boundary and (ii) to provide 3D visualization and actual tumour volume from the plain CT images. METHODS: All slices of plain CT images containing liver are enhanced by means of fuzzy histogram equalization in Non-Subsampled Contourlet Transform (NSCT) domain prior to 3D reconstruction to clearly delineate liver, non-functioning tumourous tissues and functioning liver cells within the tumour boundary. The 3D analysis from plain and CECT images was carried out on five types of liver lesions viz. HCC, metastasis, hemangioma, cyst, and abscess along with normal liver. RESULTS: The study resulted in clear delineation of functional liver tissues from non-functioning tumourous tissues within the tumour boundary from CECT as well as plain CT images. The volume of liver calculated using the proposed approach is found comparable with that obtained using Myrian-XP, a currently followed surgery planning tool in clinical practice. CONCLUSIONS: The obtained results from plain CT images will undoubtedly provide valuable diagnostic assistance and surgery planning even for the subset of patients for whom CECT acquisition is not advisable.

Dynamic safety information modeling of underground cavern groups in the entire construction process.

The construction of underground cavern groups represents a particularly challenging task in current subsurface engineering due to a multitude of variable and often unknown factors, including diverse geological conditions. This study introduces a four-dimensional spatiotemporal model and formulates a dynamic safety information model for these underground systems. Developed using C# and Python, the model integrates the finite element analysis software ABAQUS and Microsoft SQL Server database. The framework allows for real-time visual management of monitoring data, dynamic coupling of construction phases with safety metrics, and continual updates correlating with construction progress. The theoretical findings offer valuable insights for enhancing the safety and efficiency of underground cavern group construction while also supplying methods for real-time safety feedback and control throughout the construction process.

Telocytes: Detection, Visualization, Tissue Dissociation, and Tamoxifen-Induction of Transgenic Mice.

Telocytes, distinctive interstitial cells, have recently emerged as crucial components of the stem-cell niche in the intestine. Notably, telocytes are distinguished by their extremely long cellular protrusions extending hundreds of microns from the cell body, forming an interconnected network along the intestinal crypt villus axis. Due to these unique cellular characteristics, there is a need for tailored working protocols to effectively characterize and target telocytes. Here, we outline advanced and progressive protocols for tissue fixation, dissociation, visualization, and the use of tamoxifen-induced transgenic mouse models to specifically target telocytes.

Utility of real-time 3D visualization system in the early stage of phacoemulsification training.

AIM: To determine the teaching effects of a real-time three dimensional (3D) visualization system in the operating room for early-stage phacoemulsification training. METHODS: A total of 10 ophthalmology residents of the first-year postgraduate were included. All the residents were novices to cataract surgery. Real-time cataract surgical observations were performed using a custom-built 3D visualization system. The training lasted 4wk (32h) in all. A modified International Council of Ophthalmology's Ophthalmology Surgical Competency Assessment Rubric (ICO-OSCAR) containing 4 specific steps of cataract surgery was applied. The self-assessment (self) and expert-assessment (expert) were performed through the microsurgical attempts in the wet lab for each participant. RESULTS: Compared with pre-training assessments (self 3.2±0.8, expert 2.5±0.6), the overall mean scores of post-training (self 5.2±0.4, expert 4.7±0.6) were significantly improved after real-time observation training of 3D visualization system (P<0.05). Scores of 4 surgical items were significantly improved both self and expert assessment after training (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: The 3D observation training provides novice ophthalmic residents with a better understanding of intraocular microsurgical techniques. It is a useful tool to improve teaching efficiency of surgical education.

Integrated framework to assess soil potentially toxic element contamination through 3D pollution analysis in a typical mining city.

Soil potentially toxic elements (PTEs) pollution of contaminated sites has become a global environmental issue. However, given that previous studies mostly focused on pollution assessment in surface soils, the current status and environmental risks of potentially toxic elements in deeper soils remain unclear. The present study aims to cognize distribution characteristics and spatial autocorrelation, pollution levels, and risk assessment in a stereoscopic environment for soil PTEs through 3D visualization techniques. Pollution levels were assessed in an integrated manner by combining the geoaccumulation index (Igeo), the integrated influence index of soil quality (IICQs), and potential ecological hazard index. Results showed that soil environment at the site was seriously threatened by PTEs, and Cu and Cd were ubiquitous and the predominant pollutants in the study area. The stratigraphic models and pollution plume simulation revealed that pollutants show a decreasing trend with the deepening of the soil layer. The ranking of contamination soil volume is as follows: Cu > Cd > Zn > As > Pb > Cr > Ni. According to the IICQs evaluation, this region was subject to multiple PTE contamination, with more than 60% of the area becoming seriously and highly polluted. In addition, the ecological hazard model revealed the existence of substantial ecological hazards in the soils of the site. The integrated potential ecological risk index (RI) indicated that 45.7%, 10.13%, and 4.15% of the stereoscopic areas were in considerable, high, and very high risks, respectively. The findings could be used as a theoretical reference for applying multiple methods to integrate evaluation through 3D visualization analysis in the assessment and remediation of PTE-contaminated soils.

LinG3D: visualizing the spatio-temporal dynamics of clonal evolution.

BACKGROUND: Cancers are spatially heterogenous, thus their clonal evolution, especially following anti-cancer treatments, depends on where the mutated cells are located within the tumor tissue. For example, cells exposed to different concentrations of drugs, such as cells located near the vessels in contrast to those residing far from the vasculature, can undergo a different evolutionary path. However, classical representations of cell lineage trees do not account for this spatial component of emerging cancer clones. Here, we propose routines to trace spatial and temporal clonal evolution in computer simulations of the tumor evolution models. RESULTS: The LinG3D (Lineage Graphs in 3D) is an open-source collection of routines (in MATLAB, Python, and R) that enables spatio-temporal visualization of clonal evolution in a two-dimensional tumor slice from computer simulations of the tumor evolution models. These routines draw traces of tumor clones in both time and space, and may include a projection of a selected microenvironmental factor, such as the drug or oxygen distribution within the tumor, if such a microenvironmental factor is used in the tumor evolution model. The utility of LinG3D has been demonstrated through examples of simulated tumors with different number of clones and, additionally, in experimental colony growth assay. CONCLUSIONS: This routine package extends the classical lineage trees, that show cellular clone relationships in time, by adding the space component to show the locations of cellular clones within the 2D tumor tissue patch from computer simulations of tumor evolution models.

Interdisciplinary Successful Revascularization of Traumatic Occlusion of the Right Common Carotid Artery.

Blunt carotid artery injury (BCI) poses a rare yet severe threat following vascular trauma, often leading to significant morbidity and mortality. We present a case of a 33-year-old male who suffered complete thrombotic occlusion of the right common carotid artery (CCA) following a workplace accident. Clinical evaluation revealed profound neurological deficits, prompting multidisciplinary surgical intervention guided by the Denver criteria (Grade I - disruption inside the vessel that results in a narrowing of the lumen by less than 25%; Grade II - dissection or intramural hematoma causing greater than 25% stenosis; Grade III - comprises pseudoaneurysm formation; Grade IV - causes total vessel occlusion; Grade V - describes vessel transection with extravasation). Surgical exploration unveiled extensive arterial damage, necessitating thrombectomy, primary repair, and double-layered patch angioplasty using an autologous saphenous vein. Postoperative recovery was uneventful, with the restoration of pulsatile blood flow confirmed by Doppler ultrasound. Three-month follow-up demonstrated patent arterial reconstruction and improved cerebral perfusion, despite the persistent neurological deficits. Our case underscores the challenges in diagnosing and managing BCI, advocating for a tailored approach based on injury severity and neurological status. While conservative management remains standard, surgical intervention offers a viable option in select cases, particularly those with complete vessel occlusion and neurological compromise. Long-term surveillance is imperative to assess the durability of arterial reconstruction and monitor for recurrent thromboembolic events. Further research is warranted to refine management algorithms and elucidate optimal treatment strategies in this rare but critical vascular pathology.

3D visualization technology for Learning human anatomy among medical students and residents: a meta- and regression analysis.

BACKGROUND: 3D visualization technology applies computers and other devices to create a realistic virtual world for individuals with various sensory experiences such as 3D vision, touch, and smell to gain a more effective understanding of the relationships between real spatial structures and organizations. The purpose of this study was to comprehensively evaluate the effectiveness of 3D visualization technology in human anatomy teaching/training and explore the potential factors that affect the training effects to better guide the teaching of classroom/laboratory anatomy. METHODS: We conducted a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies on teaching human anatomy using 3D visualization technology. We extensively searched three authoritative databases, PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase; the main outcomes were the participants' test scores and satisfaction, while the secondary outcomes were time consumption and enjoyment. Heterogeneity by I² was statistically determined because I²> 50%; therefore, a random-effects model was employed, using data processing software such as RevMan, Stata, and VOSviewer to process data, apply standardized mean difference and 95% confidence interval, and subgroup analysis to evaluate test results, and then conduct research through sensitivity analysis and meta-regression analysis. RESULTS: Thirty-nine randomized controlled trials (2,959 participants) were screened and included in this study. The system analysis of the main results showed that compared with other methods, including data from all regions 3D visualization technology moderately improved test scores as well as satisfaction and enjoyment; however, the time that students took to complete the test was not significantly reduced. Meta-regression analysis also showed that regional factorsaffected test scores, whereas other factors had no significant impact. When the literature from China was excluded, the satisfaction and happiness of the 3D virtual-reality group were statistically significant compared to those of the traditional group; however, the test results and time consumption were not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: 3D visualization technology is an effective way to improve learners' satisfaction with and enjoyment of human anatomical learning, but it cannot reduce the time required for testers to complete the test. 3D visualization technology may struggle to improve the testers' scores. The literature test results from China are more prone to positive results and affected by regional bias.

Preliminary study on the resection of parapharyngeal and lateral skull base tumors by using transoral endoscopy with 3D visualization and navigation technologies.

OBJECTIVES: With the assistance of 3D visualization and real-time navigation technologies, the tumors in the parapharyngeal and lateral skull base should be removed through oral the approach with endoscopy. METHODS: The preoperative CT data of eight patients with parapharyngeal or lateral skull base soft tissue tumors were modeled, and the anatomical position relationship between the tumor and surrounding blood vessels and other important structures was reconstructed using 3D visualization technology, and preoperative design was performed. The intraoperative oral approach and real-time navigation guidance were adopted in the endoscopic resection of soft tissue tumors in the parapharyngeal and lateral skull base, and the clinical application value of this method was evaluated. RESULTS: The blood loss during the operation was controlled within 150 mL, and the average blood loss was approximately 125 mL. The incidence of postoperative complications was low, and patients could recover well through functional training. The oral approach did not leave any wounds nor scars on the patient's facial skin after the operation and had no effect on the patient's appearance. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of 3D visualization technology, intraoperative real-time navigation, and endoscopy provides a beautiful, safe, and minimally invasive surgical method for patients with parapharyngeal or lateral skull base tumors.

Three-dimensional visualization of thyroid ultrasound images based on multi-scale features fusion and hierarchical attention.

BACKGROUND: Ultrasound three-dimensional visualization, a cutting-edge technology in medical imaging, enhances diagnostic accuracy by providing a more comprehensive and readable portrayal of anatomical structures compared to traditional two-dimensional ultrasound. Crucial to this visualization is the segmentation of multiple targets. However, challenges like noise interference, inaccurate boundaries, and difficulties in segmenting small structures exist in the multi-target segmentation of ultrasound images. This study, using neck ultrasound images, concentrates on researching multi-target segmentation methods for the thyroid and surrounding tissues. METHOD: We improved the Unet++ to propose PA-Unet++ to enhance the multi-target segmentation accuracy of the thyroid and its surrounding tissues by addressing ultrasound noise interference. This involves integrating multi-scale feature information using a pyramid pooling module to facilitate segmentation of structures of various sizes. Additionally, an attention gate mechanism is applied to each decoding layer to progressively highlight target tissues and suppress the impact of background pixels. RESULTS: Video data obtained from 2D ultrasound thyroid serial scans served as the dataset for this paper.4600 images containing 23,000 annotated regions were divided into training and test sets at a ratio of 9:1, the results showed that: compared with the results of U-net++, the Dice of our model increased from 78.78% to 81.88% (+ 3.10%), the mIOU increased from 73.44% to 80.35% (+ 6.91%), and the PA index increased from 92.95% to 94.79% (+ 1.84%). CONCLUSIONS: Accurate segmentation is fundamental for various clinical applications, including disease diagnosis, treatment planning, and monitoring. This study will have a positive impact on the improvement of 3D visualization capabilities and clinical decision-making and research in the context of ultrasound image.

The Role of Three-Dimensional Modeling to Improve Comprehension of Liver Anatomy and Tumor Characteristics for Medical Students and Surgical Residents.

OBJECTIVE: Studying liver anatomy can be challenging for medical students and surgical residents due to its complexity. Three-dimensional visualization technology (3DVT) allows for a clearer and more precise view of liver anatomy. We sought to assess how 3DVT can assist students and surgical residents comprehend liver anatomy. DESIGN: Data from 5 patients who underwent liver resection for malignancy at our institution between September 2020 and April 2022 were retrospectively reviewed and selected following consensus among the investigators. Participants were required to complete an online survey to investigate their understanding of tumor characteristics and vascular variations based on patients' computed tomography (CT) and 3DVT. SETTING: The study was carried out at the General and Hepato-Biliary Surgery Department of the University of Verona. PARTICIPANTS: Among 32 participants, 13 (40.6%) were medical students, and 19 (59.4%) were surgical residents. RESULTS: Among 5 patients with intrahepatic lesions, 4 patients (80.0%) had at least 1 vascular variation. Participants identified number and location of lesions more correctly when evaluating the 3DVT (84.6% and 80.9%, respectively) compared with CT scans (61.1% and 64.8%, respectively) (both p ≤ 0.001). The identification of any vascular variations was more challenging using the CT scans, with only 50.6% of correct answers compared with 3DVT (72.2%) (p < 0.001). Compared with CT scans, 3DVT led to a 23.5%, 16.1%, and 21.6% increase in the correct definition of number and location of lesions, and vascular variations, respectively. 3DVT allowed for a decrease of 50.8 seconds (95% CI 23.6-78.0) in the time needed to answer the questions. All participants agreed on the usefulness of 3DVT in hepatobiliary surgery. CONCLUSIONS: The 3DVT facilitated a more precise preoperative understanding of liver anatomy, tumor location and characteristics.