Metabolism of 2,4-D in plants: comparative analysis of metabolic detoxification pathways in tolerant crops and resistant weeds.

The commercialization of 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) latifolicide in 1945 marked the beginning of the selective herbicide market, with this active ingredient playing a pivotal role among commercial herbicides due to the natural tolerance of monocots compared with dicots. Due to its intricate mode of action, involving interactions within endogenous auxin signaling networks, 2,4-D was initially considered a low-risk herbicide to evolve weed resistance. However, the intensification of 2,4-D use has contributed to the emergence of 2,4-D-resistant broadleaf weeds, challenging earlier beliefs. This review explores 2,4-D tolerance in crops and evolved resistance in weeds, emphasizing an in-depth understanding of 2,4-D metabolic detoxification. Nine confirmed 2,4-D-resistant weed species, driven by rapid metabolism, highlight cytochrome P450 monooxygenases in Phase I and glycosyltransferases in Phase II as key enzymes. Resistance to 2,4-D may also involve impaired translocation associated with mutations in auxin/indole-3-acetic acid (Aux/IAA) co-receptor genes. Moreover, temperature variations affect 2,4-D efficacy, with high temperatures increasing herbicide metabolism rates and reducing weed control, while drought stress did not affect 2,4-D efficacy. Research on 2,4-D resistance has primarily focused on non-target-site resistance (NTSR) mechanisms, including 2,4-D metabolic detoxification, with limited exploration of the inheritance and genetic basis underlying these traits. Resistance to 2,4-D in weeds is typically governed by a single gene, either dominant or incompletely dominant, raising questions about gain-of-function or loss-of-function mutations that confer resistance. Future research should unravel the physiological and molecular-genetic basis of 2,4-D NTSR, exploring potential cross-resistance patterns and assessing fitness costs that may affect future evolution of auxin-resistant weeds. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Auxin production and plant growth promotion by Microbacterium albopurpureum sp. nov. from the rhizoplane of leafless Chiloschista parishii Seidenf. orchid.

The strains of the genus Microbacterium, with more than 150 species, inhabit diverse environments; plant-associated bacteria reveal their plant growth-promoting activities due to a number of beneficial characteristics. Through the performance of diverse techniques and methods, including isolation of a novel Microbacterium strain from the aerial roots of leafless epiphytic orchid, Chiloschista parishii Seidenf., its morphological and biochemical characterization, chemotaxonomy, phylogenetic and genome analysis, as well as bioassays and estimation of its auxin production capacity, a novel strain of ET2T is described. Despite that it shared 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity of 99.79% with Microbacterium kunmingense JXJ CY 27-2T, so they formed a monophyletic group on phylogenetic trees, the two strains showed clear divergence of their genome sequences. The average nucleotide identity (ANI), average amino acid identity (AAI) and digital DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) values of ET2T differed greatly from phylogenetically close JXJ CY 27-2T. Based on the differences being below the threshold for species similarity, together with the unique chemotaxonomic characteristics, strain ET2T represents a novel species of the genus Microbacterium. Several genes, putatively involved in auxin biosynthesis were predicted. This strain revealed obvious plant growth-promoting activities, including diazotrophy and biosynthesis of tryptophan-dependent auxins (indole-3-acetic and indole-3-pyruvic acids). Microbial auxins directly stimulated the rhizogenesis, so that the ET2T-inoculated seeds of wheat, cucumber and garden cress showed evident promotion in their growth and development, both under optimal and under cold stress conditions. Based on phenotypic, chemotypic and genotypic evidences, the strain ET2T belongs to the genus Microbacterium, order Micrococcales, class Actinomycetes, and it represents a novel species, for which the name Microbacterium albopurpureum sp. nov. is proposed, with strain ET2T (VKPM Ac-2212, VKM Ас-2998) as the type strain.

Adjustments of the Phytochemical Profile of Broccoli to Low and High Growing Temperatures: Implications for the Bioactivity of Its Extracts.

Climate change causes shifts in temperature patterns, and plants adapt their chemical content in order to survive. We compared the effect of low (LT) and high (HT) growing temperatures on the phytochemical content of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. convar. botrytis (L.) Alef. var. cymosa Duch.) microgreens and the bioactivity of their extracts. Using different spectrophotometric, LC-MS/MS, GC-MS, and statistical methods, we found that LT increased the total phenolics and tannins in broccoli. The total glucosinolates were also increased by LT; however, they were decreased by HT. Soluble sugars, known osmoprotectants, were increased by both types of stress, considerably more by HT than LT, suggesting that HT causes a more intense osmotic imbalance. Both temperatures were detrimental for chlorophyll, with HT being more impactful than LT. HT increased hormone indole-3-acetic acid, implying an important role in broccoli's defense. Ferulic and sinapic acid showed a trade-off scheme: HT increased ferulic while LT increased sinapic acid. Both stresses decreased the potential of broccoli to act against H2O2 damage in mouse embryonal fibroblasts (MEF), human keratinocytes, and liver cancer cells. Among the tested cell types treated by H2O2, the most significant reduction in ROS (36.61%) was recorded in MEF cells treated with RT extracts. The potential of broccoli extracts to inhibit α-amylase increased following both temperature stresses; however, the inhibition of pancreatic lipase was increased by LT only. From the perspective of nutritional value, and based on the obtained results, we conclude that LT conditions result in more nutritious broccoli microgreens than HT.

Hormonal profiles in dormant turions of 22 aquatic plant species: do they reflect functional or taxonomic traits?

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Turions are vegetative, dormant overwintering organs formed in aquatic plants in response to unfavourable ecological conditions. Contents of cytokinin (CK), auxin metabolites and abscisic acid (ABA) as main growth and development regulators were compared in innately dormant autumnal turions of 22 aquatic plant species of different functional ecological or taxonomic groups with those in non-dormant winter apices in three aquatic species and with those in spring turions of four species after their overwintering. METHODS: The hormones were analysed in miniature turion samples using ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. KEY RESULTS: In innately dormant turions, the total contents of each of the four main CK types, biologically active forms and total CKs differed by two to three orders of magnitude across 22 species; the proportion of active CK forms was 0.18-67 %. Similarly, the content of four auxin forms was extremely variable and the IAA proportion as the active form was 0.014-99 %. The ABA content varied from almost zero to 54 µmol kg-1 dry weight and after overwintering it usually significantly decreased. Of all functional traits studied, hormone profiles depended most on the place of turion sprouting (surface vs bottom) and we suggest that this trait is crucial for turion ecophysiology. CONCLUSIONS: The key role of ABA in regulating turion dormancy was confirmed. However, the highly variable pattern of the ABA content in innately dormant and in overwintered turions indicates that the hormonal mechanism regulating the innate dormancy and its breaking in turions is not uniform within aquatic plants.

Multi-hormonal analysis and aquaporins regulation reveal new insights on drought tolerance in grapevine.

Disentangling the factors that foster the tolerance to water stress in plants could provide great benefits to crop productions. In a two-year experiment, two new PIWI (fungus resistant) grapevine varieties, namely Merlot Kanthus and Sauvignon Kretos (Vitis hybrids), grown in the field, were subjected to two different water regimes: weekly irrigated (IR) or not irrigated (NIR) for two months during the summer. The two varieties exhibited large differences in terms of performance under water-limiting conditions. In particular, Merlot Kanthus strongly decreased stem water potential (Ψs) under water shortage and Sauvignon Kretos maintained higher Ψs values accompanied by generally high stomatal conductance and net carbon assimilation, regardless of the treatment. We hypothesized differences in the hormonal profile that mediate most of the plant responses to stresses or in the regulation of the aquaporins that control the water transport in the leaves. In general, substantial differences were found in the abundance of different hormonal classes, with Merlot Kanthus reporting higher concentrations of cytokinins while Sauvignon Kretos higher concentrations of auxins, jasmonate and salicylic acid. Interestingly, under water stress conditions ABA modulation appeared similar between the two cultivars, while other hormones were differently modulated between the two varieties. Regarding the expression of aquaporin encoding genes, Merlot Kanthus showed a significant downregulation of VvPIP2;1 and VvTIP2;1 in leaves exposed to water stress. Both genes have probably a role in influencing leaf conductance, and VvTIP2;1 has been correlated with stomatal conductance values. This evidence suggests that the two PIWI varieties are characterized by different behaviour in response to drought. Furthermore, the findings of the study may be generalized, suggesting the involvement of a complex hormonal cross-talk and aquaporins in effectively influencing plant performance under water shortage.

Natural Products Biosynthesis by Streptomyces netropsis IMV Ac-5025 under Exogenous Sterol Action.

Streptomycetes are known as producers of bioactive substances, particularly antibiotics. Streptomyces netropsis IMV Ac-5025 simultaneously produces different classes of antibiotics, including polyene compounds, phytohormones, and sterols, but the metabolic pathways involved in their biosynthesis are largely understudied. The aim of this work was to explore the biosynthesis of polyene antibiotics, sterols, and phytohormones when the producer is cultivated in a nutrient medium supplemented with exogenous ß-sitosterol. Gas chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography were applied to analyze the spectrum of bioactive compounds. The obtained results demonstrated not only an increase in the accumulation of biomass but also polyene antibiotics, intracellular sterols, auxins, and cytokinins, when cultivating S. netropsis IMV Ac-5025 in a liquid medium with the addition of ß-sitosterol. The amount of biomass raised 1.5-2-fold, whilst the sum of polyene antibiotics increased 4.5-fold, sterols' sum (ergosterol, cholesterol, stigmasterol, ß-sitosterol, and 24-epibrassinolide) by 2.9-fold, auxins' sum (indole-3-acetic acid, indole-3-acetic acid hydrazide, indole-3-carbinol, indole-3-butyric acid, indole-3-carboxaldehyde, and indole-3-carboxylic acid) by 6-fold, and cytokinins' sum (zeatin, isopentyladenine, zeatin riboside, and isopentenyladenosine) by 11-fold. Thus, we put forward the hypothesis that ß-sitosterol plays a regulatory role in the network of biosynthetic reactions of S. netropsis IMV Ac-5025.

The Effect of External Treatment of Arabidopsis thaliana with Plant-Derived Stilbene Compounds on Plant Resistance to Abiotic Stresses.

Stilbenes are a group of plant phenolic secondary metabolites, with trans-resveratrol (3,5,4'-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene) being recognized as the most prominent and studied member. Stilbenes have a great potential for use in agriculture and medicine, as they have significant activities against plant pathogens and have valuable beneficial effects on human health. In this study, we analyzed the effects of direct application of stilbenes, stilbene precursor, and stilbene-rich extract solutions to the plant foliar surface for increasing the resistance of Arabidopsis thaliana to various abiotic stresses (heat, cold, drought, and soil salinity). Exogenous treatment of A. thaliana with stilbenes (trans-resveratrol, piceid, and spruce bark extract) and phenolic precursor (p-coumaric acid or CA) during germination resulted in considerable growth retardation of A. thaliana plants: a strong delay in the root and stem length of 1-week-old seedlings (in 1.3-4.5 fold) and rosette diameter of 1-month-old plants (in 1.2-1.8 fold), while the 2-month-old treated plants were not significantly different in size from the control. Plant treatments with stilbenes and CA increased the resistance of A. thaliana to heat and, to a lesser extent, to soil salinity (only t-resveratrol and spruce extract) to drought (only CA), while cold resistance was not affected. Plant treatments with stilbenes and CA resulted in a significant increase in plant resistance and survival rates under heat, with plants showing 1.5-2.3 times higher survival rates compared to untreated plants. Thus, exogenous stilbenes and a CA are able to improve plant survival under certain abiotic stresses via specific activation of the genes involved in the biosynthesis of auxins, gibberellins, abscisic acid, and some stress-related genes. The present work provides new insights into the application of stilbenes to improve plant stress tolerance.

Characteristics of turion development in two aquatic carnivorous plants: Hormonal profiles, gas exchange and mineral nutrient content.

Turions are vegetative, dormant, and storage overwintering organs formed in perennial aquatic plants in response to unfavorable ecological conditions and originate by extreme condensation of apical shoot segments. The contents of cytokinins, auxins, and abscisic acid were estimated in shoot apices of summer growing, rootless aquatic carnivorous plants, Aldrovanda vesiculosa and Utricularia australis, and in developing turions at three stages and full maturity to reveal hormonal patterns responsible for turion development. The hormones were analyzed in miniature turion samples using ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Photosynthetic measurements in young leaves also confirmed relatively high photosynthetic rates at later turion stages. The content of active cytokinin forms was almost stable in A. vesiculosa during turion development but markedly decreased in U. australis. In both species, auxin content culminated in the middle of turion development and then decreased again. The content of abscisic acid as the main inhibitory hormone was very low in growing plants in both species but rose greatly at first developmental stages and stayed very high in mature turions. The hormonal data indicate a great strength of developing turions within sink-source relationships and confirm the central role of abscisic acid in regulating the turion development.

Molecular insights into the mutualism that induces iron deficiency tolerance in sorghum inoculated with Trichoderma harzianum.

Iron (Fe) deficiency is a common mineral stress in plants, including sorghum. Although the soil fungus Trichoderma harzianum has been shown to mitigate Fe deficiency in some circumstances, neither the range nor mechanism(s) of this process are well understood. In this study, high pH-induced Fe deficiency in sorghum cultivated in pots with natural field soil exhibited a significant decrease in biomass, photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, water use efficiency, and Fe-uptake in both the root and shoot. However, the establishment of T. harzianum colonization in roots of Fe-deprived sorghum showed significant improvements in morpho-physiological traits, Fe levels, and redox status. Molecular detection of the fungal ThAOX1 (L-aminoacid oxidase) gene showed the highest colonization of T. harzianum in the root tips of Fe-deficient sorghum, a location thus targeted for further analysis. Expression studies by RNA-seq and qPCR in sorghum root tips revealed a significant upregulation of several genes associated with Fe uptake (SbTOM2), auxin synthesis (SbSAURX15), nicotianamine synthase 3 (SbNAS3), and a phytosiderophore transporter (SbYS1). Also induced was the siderophore synthesis gene (ThSIT1) in T. harzianum, a result supported by biochemical evidence for elevated siderophore and IAA (indole acetic acid) levels in roots. Given the high affinity of fungal siderophore to chelate insoluble Fe3+ ions, it is likely that elevated siderophore released by T. harzianum led to Fe(III)-siderophore complexes in the rhizosphere that were then transported into roots by the induced SbYS1 (yellow-stripe 1) transporter. In addition, the observed induction of several plant peroxidase genes and ABA (abscisic acid) under Fe deficiency after inoculation with T. harzianum may have helped induce tolerance to Fe-deficiency-induced oxidative stress and adaptive responses. This is the first mechanistic explanation for T. harzianum's role in helping alleviate Fe deficiency in sorghum and suggests that biofertilizers using T. harzianum will improve Fe availability to crops in high pH environments.

Comparative transcriptome analysis of high- and low-embryogenic Hevea brasiliensis genotypes reveals involvement of phytohormones in somatic embryogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Rubber plant (Hevea brasiliensis) is one of the major sources of latex. Somatic embryogenesis (SE) is a promising alterative to its propagation by grafting and seed. Phytohormones have been shown to influence SE in different plant species. However, limited knowledge is available on the role of phytohormones in SE in Hevea. The anther cultures of two Hevea genotypes (Yunyan 73477-YT and Reken 628-RT) with contrasting SE rate were established and four stages i.e., anthers (h), anther induced callus (y), callus differentiation state (f), and somatic embryos (p) were studied. UPLC-ESI-MS/MS and transcriptome analyses were used to study phytohormone accumulation and related expression changes in biosynthesis and signaling genes. RESULTS: YT showed higher callus induction rate than RT. Of the two genotypes, only YT exhibited successful SE. Auxins, cytokinins (CKs), abscisic acid (ABA), jasmonic acid (JA), salicylic acid (SA), gibberellins (GAs), and ethylene (ETH) were detected in the two genotypes. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), CKs, ABA, and ETH had notable differences in the studied stages of the two genotypes. The differentially expressed genes identified in treatment comparisons were majorly enriched in MAPK and phytohormone signaling, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, and metabolic pathways. The expression changes in IAA, CK, ABA, and ETH biosynthesis and signaling genes confirmed the differential accumulation of respective phytohormones in the two genotypes. CONCLUSION: These results suggest potential roles of phytohormones in SE in Hevea.

Influence of Exogenous 24-Epicasterone on the Hormonal Status of Soybean Plants.

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are key phytohormones involved in the regulation of major processes of cell metabolism that guide plant growth. In the past decades, new evidence has made it clear that BRs also play a key role in the orchestration of plant responses to many abiotic and biotic stresses. In the present work, we analyzed the impact of foliar treatment with 24-epicastasterone (ECS) on the endogenous content of major phytohormones (auxins, salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and abscisic acid) and their intermediates in soybean leaves 7 days following the treatment. Changes in the endogenous content of phytohormones have been identified and quantified by LC/MS. The obtained results point to a clear role of ECS in the upregulation of auxin content (indole-3-acetic acid, IAA) and downregulation of salicylic, jasmonic, and abscisic acid levels. These data confirm that under optimal conditions, ECS in tested concentrations of 0.25 µM and 1 µM might promote growth in soybeans by inducing auxin contents. Benzoic acid (a precursor of salicylic acid (SA)), but not SA itself, has also been highly accumulated under ECS treatment, which indicates an activation of the adaptation strategies of cell metabolism to possible environmental challenges.

Molecular understanding of anthocyanin biosynthesis activated by PAP1 and regulated by 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in engineered red Artemisia annua cells.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Eight promoters were cloned, from which AC and G-box cis-elements were identified. PAP1 enhanced the promoter activity. 2,4-D reduced the anthocyanin biosynthesis via downregulating the expression of the PAP1 transgene. Artemisia annua is an effective antimalarial medicinal crop. We have established anthocyanin-producing red cell cultures from this plant with the overexpression of Production of Anthocyanin Pigment 1 (PAP1) encoding a R2R3MYB transcription factor. To understand the molecular mechanism by which PAP1 activated the entire anthocyanin pathway, we mined the genomic sequences of A. annua and obtained eight promoters of the anthocyanin pathway genes. Sequence analysis identified four types of AC cis-elements from six promoters, the MYB response elements (MRE) bound by PAP1. In addition, six promoters were determined to have at least one G-box cis-element. Eight promoters were cloned for activity analysis. Dual luciferase assays showed that PAP1 significantly enhanced the promoting activity of seven promoters, indicating that PAP1 turned on the biosynthesis of anthocyanins via the activation of these pathway gene expression. To understand how 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), an auxin, regulates the PAP1-activated anthocyanin biosynthesis, five different concentrations (0, 0.05, 0.5, 2.5, and 5 µM) were tested to characterize anthocyanin production and profiles. The resulting data showed that the concentrations tested decreased the fresh weight of callus growth, anthocyanin levels, and the production of anthocyanins per Petri dish. HPLC-qTOF-MS/MS-based profiling showed that these concentrations did not alter anthocyanin profiles. Real-time RT-PCR was completed to characterize the expression PAP1 and four representative pathway genes. The results showed that the five concentrations reduced the expression levels of the constitutive PAP1 transgene and three pathway genes significantly and eliminated the expression of the chalcone synthase gene either significantly or slightly. These data indicate that the constitutive PAP1 expression depends on gradients added in the medium. Based on these findings, the regulation of 2,4-D is discussed for anthocyanin engineering in red cells of A. annua.

Biosynthetic Pathways of Hormones in Plants.

Phytohormones exhibit a wide range of chemical structures, though they primarily originate from three key metabolic precursors: amino acids, isoprenoids, and lipids. Specific amino acids, such as tryptophan, methionine, phenylalanine, and arginine, contribute to the production of various phytohormones, including auxins, melatonin, ethylene, salicylic acid, and polyamines. Isoprenoids are the foundation of five phytohormone categories: cytokinins, brassinosteroids, gibberellins, abscisic acid, and strigolactones. Furthermore, lipids, i.e., α-linolenic acid, function as a precursor for jasmonic acid. The biosynthesis routes of these different plant hormones are intricately complex. Understanding of these processes can greatly enhance our knowledge of how these hormones regulate plant growth, development, and physiology. This review focuses on detailing the biosynthetic pathways of phytohormones.

Insights into the role of phytohormones in plant female germline cell specification.

Germline specification is a fundamental process in plant reproduction, and the Megaspore Mother Cell (MMC), is a critical cell that differentiates and develops into the female gametophyte. While numerous studies have investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying female germline specification, previous reviews have mainly focused on gene regulatory networks, epigenetic pathways, and small RNAs, neglecting the potential contribution of phytohormones to this process. This review aims to address this gap by highlighting recent advances in MMC formation and discussing the roles of specific phytohormones in female germline specialization. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the functions of phytohormones in the formation of MMC and their effects on female gametophyte development. Specifically, it examines the roles of gibberellins (GAs), brassinosteroids (BRs), auxins, and cytokinin, in MMC development. Understanding the function of phytohormones in MMC development is essential for comprehending the complex mechanisms underlying plant reproduction. This review adds valuable insights to the existing knowledge on MMC development, providing a new perspective for future research in the field of plant reproduction.

Development of a New Micropropagation Protocol and Transfer of In Vitro Plants to In Vivo Conditions for Cascade Hop.

The vegetative propagation of hops, despite being a reliable method, is not very common due to the unavailability of the plant material. In this study, the technique of in vitro propagation was applied to the Cascade variety of Humulus lupulus L. The plant material was collected from a private field in Sicily; the explants were subjected to sterilization before in vitro culture. Single-node explants were placed in in vitro culture in nine different culture media for multiplication. Thidiazuron (TDZ), Benzyladenine (BAP) and meta-Topoline (mT) were tested for multiplication phase. For the rooting phase, five types of different culture media were evaluated. Binodal cuttings coming from the previous multiplication test were placed in the culture. The rooting media differ from each other in the concentration and ratio of two auxin hormones: Indolo-3-acetic acid (IAA) and Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). In vitro rooted plants obtained from the rooting phase were transferred to ex vitro conditions in a microbox with agri-perlite and a solution containing Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium at half concentration. With a culture medium containing the highest TDZ doses (H6) and combination with cytokinin (H8 and H9), the highest shoot percentage was obtained. After 3 months of in vitro culture, the highest shoot percentage was observed in the culture medium with 2 mL L-1 of BAP. The highest rooting percentage, roots numbers and root length were found when the culture medium was supplemented with 1 mL L-1 of IAA. The usage of agri-perlite and MS at half concentration, without PGR, allowed us to obtain a 99.1% survival rate. This micropropagation protocol is useful for obtaining virus-free plants and for the development of the brewery industry.

Auxin-dependent regulation of growth via rolB-induced modulation of the ROS metabolism in the long-term cultivated pRiA4-transformed Rubiacordifolia L. calli.

Gene transfer from Agrobacterium to plants is the best studied example of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The rol genes of A. rhizogenes (Rhizobium rhizogenes) provide uncontrolled root growth, or "hairy root" syndrome, the main diagnostic feature. In the present study, we investigated the stable pRiA4-transformed callus culture of Rubia cordifolia L. While untransformed callus cultures need PGRs (plant growth regulators) as an obligatory supplement, pRiA4 calli is able to achieve long-term PGR-free cultivation. For the first time, we described the pRiA4-transformed callus cultures' PGR-dependent ROS status, growth, and specialized metabolism. As we have shown, expression of the rolA and rolB but not the rolC genes is contradictory in a PGR-dependent manner. Moreover, a PGR-free pRiA4 transformed cell line is characterised as more anthraquinone (AQ) productive than an untransformed cell culture. These findings pertain to actual plant biotechnology: it could be the solution to troubles in choosing the best PGR combination for the cultivation of some rare, medicinal, and woody plants; wild-type Ri-plants and tissue cultures may become freed from legal controls on genetically modified organisms in the future. We propose possible PGR-dependent relationships between rolA and rolB as well as ROS signalling targets. The present study highlighted the high importance of the rolA gene in the regulation of combined rol gene effects and the large knowledge gap in rolA action.

One-pot fabrication of magnetic adsorbent based on polymeric ionic liquid/aminated carbon nanotubes composite for efficient capture of synthetic auxins in complex samples prior to chromatographic analysis.

Efficient enrichment is a challenging and indispensable step in the quantification of polar synthetic auxins in complex samples. In the current study, a new magnetic adsorbent based on polymeric ionic liquid/aminated carbon nanotube composite was fabricated with a one-pot precipitation copolymerization strategy and employed as the extraction phase of magnetic solid phase extraction of synthetic auxins. Various characterization techniques were utilized to inspect the morphology, structure, magnetic property, and functional groups of the prepared adsorbent. Under the optimal conditions, the obtained adsorbent displayed satisfactory capture performance towards studied auxins through multiple interactions. Adsorption studies evidenced that the adsorption procedure of the developed method towards analytes was fit for the Freundlich adsorption model and pseudo-second-order kinetics. Combining with high-performance liquid chromatography, sensitive and reliable method for the identification and quantification of trace synthetic auxins in environmental water and fruit juice samples was developed. The obtained limits of detection for water and fruit juice samples located in the ranges of 0.0059-0.013 and 0.018-0.031 µg/L, respectively. Recoveries in actual samples with different fortified contents varied from 82.2% to 117%, with satisfactory reproducibility. The results will evidence that the introduced extraction technique is a useful alternative for the entrapment of trace synthetic auxins from complex samples.

Modulation of the Berry Skin Transcriptome of cv. Tempranillo Induced by Water Stress Levels.

Climate change in the Mediterranean area is making summers warmer and dryer. Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is mostly important for wine production in Mediterranean countries, and the variety Tempranillo is one of the most cultivated in Spain and Portugal. Drought decreases yield and quality and causes important economic losses. As full irrigation has negative effects on quality and water is scarce in this region, deficit irrigation is often applied. In this research, we studied the effects of two deficit irrigation treatments, Sustained Deficit Irrigation (SDI) and Regulated Deficit Irrigation (RDI), on the transcriptome of grape berries at full maturation, through RNAseq. The expression of differentially regulated genes (DEGs) was also monitored through RT-qPCR along berry development. Most transcripts were regulated by water stress, with a similar distribution of up- and down-regulated transcripts within functional categories (FC). Primary metabolism was the more severely affected FC under water stress, followed by signaling and transport. Almost all DEGs monitored were significantly up-regulated by severe water stress at veraison. The modulation of an auxin response repression factor, AUX22D, by water stress indicates a role of this gene in the response to drought. Further, the expression of WRKY40, a TF that regulates anthocyanin biosynthesis, may be responsible for changes in grape quality under severe water stress.

Parthenocarpy-related genes induced by naphthalene acetic acid in oil palm interspecific O × G [Elaeis oleifera (Kunth) Cortés × Elaeis guineensis Jacq.] hybrids.

Parthenocarpy is the development without fertilization of seedless fruits. In the oil palm industry, the development of parthenocarpic fruits is considered an attractive option to increase palm oil production. Previous studies have shown the application of synthetic auxins in Elaeis guineensis, and interspecific O×G hybrids (Elaeis oleifera (Kunth) Cortés × E. guineensis Jacq.) induces parthenocarpy. The aim of this study was to identify the molecular mechanism through transcriptomics and biology system approach to responding to how the application of NAA induces parthenocarpic fruits in oil palm O×G hybrids. The transcriptome changes were studied in three phenological stages (PS) of the inflorescences: i) PS 603, pre-anthesis III, ii) PS 607, anthesis, and iii) PS 700, fertilized female flower. Each PS was treated with NAA, Pollen, and control (any application). The expression profile was studied at three separate times: five minutes (T0), 24 hours (T1), and 48 h post-treatment (T2). The RNA sequencing (RNA seq) approach was used with 27 oil palm O×G hybrids for a total of 81 raw samples. RNA-Seq showed around 445,920 genes. Numerous differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were involved in pollination, flowering, seed development, hormone biosynthesis, and signal transduction. The expression of the most relevant transcription factors (TF) families was variable and dependent on the stage and time post-treatment. In general, NAA treatment expressed differentially more genes than Pollen. Indeed, the gene co-expression network of Pollen was built with fewer nodes than the NAA treatment. The transcriptional profiles of Auxin-responsive protein and Gibberellin-regulated genes involved in parthenocarpy phenomena agreed with those previously reported in other species. The expression of 13 DEGs was validated by RT-qPCR analysis. This detailed knowledge about the molecular mechanisms involved in parthenocarpy could be used to facilitate the future development of genome editing techniques that enable the production of parthenocarpic O×G hybrid cultivars without growth regulator application.