Revisiting Emil Kraepelin's eugenic arguments.

It is widely recognized that Emil Kraepelin explicitly advocated for eugenic ideas in his academic works. Given the renewed interest in related concepts such as self-domestication and neo-Lamarckism in different contexts, this article revisits his eugenic arguments by scrutinizing a section of his seminal work, the 8th edition of his textbook published in 1909. Our analysis reveals that Kraepelin's arguments consisted of multiple theories and ideas prevalent at the time (i.e. self-domestication hypothesis, neo-Lamarckism, degeneration theory, social Darwinism, racism and ethnic nationalism), each of which presented individual fundamental claims. Nevertheless, Kraepelin amalgamated them into one combined narrative, which crystallized into an anti-humanistic psychiatry in the next generation. This paper cautions that a similar 'packaging of ideas' might be emerging now.

The past, present and future of Alzheimer's disease - part 1: the past / O passado, presente e futuro da doença de Alzheimer - parte 1: o passado

Abstract Background Alzheimer's disease (AD) was described in 1907, and since then it changed from a relatively rare condition to one of the most prevalent diseases. Objective To describe the evolution of the notions of dementias and AD, and to investigate the reasons for the increase in scientific interest in AD. Methods A historical analysis was carried out on knowledge about dementia, the site of mental activity, the relationships between brain diseases and mental activity, and on the advances in research about AD, since its discovery until the publication of the amyloid cascade hypothesis in 1992. A search was carried out in the National Library of Medicine (PubMed) for scientific articles that included the terms dementia or AD over 50 years, from 1972 to 2021. Results The scientific research on AD increased from 615 papers with the term AD in the first decade (1972-1981), to 100,028 papers in the last decade (2012-2021): an increase of 162.6 times whereas publications with the term dementia increased 28.6 times in the same period. In the 1960s and 1970s, a consensus was reached that AD is responsible for the majority of cases of dementia previously known as senile dementia. In the 1980s, beta-amyloid peptide was identified in the core of the senile plaque, hyperphosphorylated tau protein was found in neurofibrillary tangles, and a mutation was discovered in a hereditary form of AD. Conclusion The expansion of the concept of AD to include senile dementia, and the discoveries that occurred in the 1980s greatly expanded research in AD.

Resumo Antecedentes A doença de Alzheimer (DA) foi descrita em 1907 e, desde então, deixou de ser relativamente rara para se tornar uma das doenças mais prevalentes. Objetivo Descrever a evolução das noções sobre demências e DA e investigar as razões do aumento do interesse científico pela DA. Métodos Foi realizada uma análise histórica dos conhecimentos sobre demência, o local da atividade mental, as relações entre doenças cerebrais e a atividade mental, e sobre os avanços na pesquisa sobre a DA, desde a sua descoberta até a publicação da hipótese da cascata amiloide em 1992. Foi realizada uma busca na Biblioteca Nacional de Medicina dos Estados Unidos da América (PubMed) por artigos científicos que incluíssem os termos demência ou DA nos 50 anos, de 1972 a 2021. Resultados A pesquisa científica sobre DA aumentou de 615 artigos com o termo doença de Alzheimer na primeira década (1972-1981), para 100.028 artigos na última década (2012-2021): um aumento de 162,6 vezes enquanto as publicações com o termo demência aumentaram 28,6 vezes no mesmo período. Nas décadas de 1960 e 1970, chegou-se a um consenso de que a DA é responsável pela maioria dos casos de demência, anteriormente conhecida como demência senil. Na década de 1980, o peptídeo beta-amiloide foi identificado no núcleo da placa senil, a proteína tau hiperfosforilada foi encontrada em emaranhados neurofibrilares e uma mutação foi descoberta em uma forma hereditária de DA. Conclusão A expansão do conceito de DA para incluir a demência senil e as descobertas ocorridas na década de 1980 ampliaram enormemente a pesquisa em DA.

Emil Kraepelin as a historian of psychiatry - one hundred years on.

This article reviews Emil Kraepelin's address 'Hundert Jahre Psychiatrie', at the opening of the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie in 1917, and published as an essay in 1918. Kraepelin's publication represents a part of his late work: his commitment as a historian of psychiatry. He composed a classic narrative of psychiatric progress, which includes an outlook on desirable future developments in therapy and prevention. The present article considers the essay's socio-historical context as well as its structure and content. The focus lies on its time of origin around the end of World War I, its sources in relation to the state of the art of historiography at that time and the history of its reception, including the English-language edition of 1962.

Kraepelin's psychiatry in the pragmatic age.

The movement of a pendulum is often used as a metaphor to represent the history of twentieth century American psychiatry. On this view, American psychiatry evolved by swinging back and forth between two schools of thought in constant competition: somatic accounts of mental illness and psychodynamic ones. I argue that this narrative partly misrepresents the actual development of American psychiatry. I suggest that there were some important exchanges of ideas and practices in the transition from German biological approaches to American psychodynamic approaches. In particular, two kinds of pragmatism played an important role in this transition: Kraepelin's methodological pragmatism, and pragmatic values present in the American psychiatric context, due in part to the influence of William James. From a historical standpoint, I suggest that the metaphor of the pendulum doesn't capture the full complexities of this shift in psychiatry at the turn of the century; from a philosophical standpoint, my discussion brings to light two strands of pragmatism salient to scientific psychiatry.

[Mathilde Ludendorff (1877-1966): specialist for nervous and mental diseases and Germanic philosopher]. / Mathilde Ludendorff (1877­1966): Nervenärztin und völkische Philosophin.

Mathilde Ludendorff (nee Spiess, widowed von Kemnitz, divorced Kleine) was one of the first women who studied medicine in Imperial Germany. She wrote a feminist doctoral thesis, refuted Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis early in her career, detected the fraud of Albert von Schrenck-Notzing's spiritualist research, became a specialist for nervous and mental diseases after only 17 months of training with Emil Kraepelin, as his-according to her own words-best pupil, treated General Ludendorff's first wife and soon became his second, developed a Germanic philosophy too radical for Adolf Hitler's taste, was considered as a primary culprit after a first denazification trial in 1949 and contested the expert opinion of her colleague Professor Georg Stertz about her own mental state. Her books are still in print and her Alliance for God Cognizance (Ludendorff) still exists and is monitored by the National Intelligence Agency.

'I think' (the thoughts of others). The German tradition of apperceptionism and the intellectual history of schizophrenia.

Although contemporary approaches to schizophrenia pinpoint 'disturbances of the self' as a central aetiological factor, historical insight into the link between accounts of schizophrenia and theories of subjectivity and self-consciousness is poor. This paper aims to overcome this gap by providing the outlines of a largely forgotten but crucial part of the intellectual history of schizophrenia. In particular, the impact of the German tradition of apperceptionism on nineteenth-century accounts of schizophrenia is unearthed. This tradition emerged from German Idealism, and culminated in Emil Kraepelin's account of dementia praecox. In addition to filling an important gap in the historiography of psychiatry, this analysis contributes to ongoing efforts to correct some common misunderstandings regarding Kraepelin's theoretical position.

On the life and work of Korbinian Brodmann (1868-1918).

This study describes the life and work of early-twentieth-century German scientist Korbinian Brodmann (1868-1918). His medical training at universities in Munich, Würzburg, Berlin, and Freiburg and his further education are illustrated. His early Leipzig career and cooperation with brain researchers Oskar and Cécile Vogt in Berlin are portrayed, as are his contributions to a localization theory of the cerebral cortex-namely, Brodmann's cytoarchitectonic approach-and the invention of a cortex area nomenclature, further developed until the beginning of World War I. His Tübingen professorship and being nominated to manage a major department of Emil Kraepelin's Munich research unit represent further aspects of this study, a promising career ahead, harshly interrupted by an early and unexpected death.

Towards Modern Depressive Disorder: Professional Understanding of Depression in Interwar Britain.

This article examines the way in which British psychiatrists defined, categorized, and applied depression in the period between the two World Wars. To analyze the professional understanding and application of the notion, various expert literatures will be analyzed, such as textbooks, medical journals, and medical documents kept in daily practice. Through the analysis, this article suggests that in the interwar decades, the status of depression as a distinct mental disorder was far from established in terms of its definition, terminology, and classification, although the disorder had already become the most prevalent mental illness by the turn of the century. Also, this article argues that the early twentieth century should be recognized as a part of the long evolution through which depression achieves its modernity, beginning in the early twentieth century and ending in the post-war era. Such findings about a specific psychiatric diagnosis can be applied to the explanation of contemporary psychiatry. At least before the Second World War, British psychiatry had not yet entered into its modern phase and was still under the strong influence of the Victorian medical tradition. Thus, this article claims that in order to understand British psychiatry and its characteristics against this historical background, continuity should be stressed rather than modernity.

Race, alcohol and general paralysis: Emil Kraepelin's comparative psychiatry and his trips to Java (1904) and North America (1925).

This article examines Emil Kraepelin's notion of comparative psychiatry and relates it to the clinical research he conducted at psychiatric hospitals in South-East Asia (1904) and the USA (1925). It argues that his research fits awkwardly within the common historiographic narratives of colonial psychiatry. It also disputes claims that his work can be interpreted meaningfully as the fons et origio of transcultural psychiatry. Instead, it argues that his comparative psychiatry was part of a larger neo-Lamarckian project of clinical epidemiology and was thus primarily a reflection of his own long-standing diagnostic practices and research agendas. However, the hospitals in Java and America exposed the institutional constraints and limitations of those practices and agendas.

A poética de Augusto dos Anjos e a neuropsiquiatria no fin de siècle / The poetry of Augusto dos Anjos and fin de siècle neuropsychiatry

Resumo O paraibano Augusto dos Anjos ocupa um lugar singular na literatura brasileira, sendo difícil alinhá-lo a um estilo literário estrito. Sua poesia é marcada por versos angustiados, pela dimensão existencial e pelo vocabulário repleto de termos científicos. A obra do poeta se reveste de interesse neuropsiquiátrico, seja pela abundante presença de termos relacionados, seja por refletir concepções neurocientíficas da transição entre os séculos XIX e XX. Este trabalho revisita sua produção literária, com duplo foco: primeiro, busca identificar como sua poesia repercute o viés organicista da psiquiatria dessa época, conforme geralmente personificado na figura de Emil Kraepelin; segundo, tenta explorar os conteúdos ideológicos presentes na obra, como a perspectiva darwinista e a tensão entre o dualismo e o monismo materialista.

Abstract Augusto dos Anjos, from Paraíba, Brazil, occupies a singular place in Brazilian literature, defying alignment with any one literary style. His poetry is marked by anguished verse, by existential dimensions and a vocabulary replete with scientific terms. His work is of great interest to neuropsychiatry, not just for the abundance of related terms, but also because it reflects conceptions from neuroscience at the turn of the twentieth century. This study focuses on his literary output from a dual perspective: by identifying how his poetry reflects the organicist tendency in psychiatry at the time, as generally personified in the figure of Emil Kraepelin, and by exploring the ideological content of the work, like the Darwinist perspective and the tension between dualism and materialistic monism.

'A more perfect arrangement of plants': the botanical model in psychiatric nosology, 1676 to the present day.

Psychiatric classification remains a complex endeavour; since the Enlightenment, nosologists have made use of various models and metaphors to describe their systems. Here we present the most common model, botanical taxonomy, and trace its history from the nosologies of Sydenham, Sauvages and Linnaeus; to evolutionary models; to the later contributions of Hughlings-Jackson, Kraepelin and Jaspers. Over time, there has been a shift from explicit attempts to pattern disease classification on botanical systems, to a more metaphorical use. We find that changes in the understanding of plants and plant relationships parallel changes in the conceptualization of mental illness. Not only have scientific discoveries influenced the use of metaphor, but the language of metaphor has also both illuminated and constrained psychiatric nosology.

Graphology in German psychiatry (1870-1930).

This article discusses both the use of graphology in German psychiatry (1870-1930) and the use of handwriting in psychiatric experiments. The examination of handwriting was part of an ensemble of diagnostic tools. Although disorders of handwriting seemed to indicate psychic diseases, graphology did not seem the right method to produce valid observations. Nevertheless, psychiatrists began to incorporate the process of writing into research and diagnosis and to make the process of handwriting an experimental field. Emil Kraepelin invented an apparatus - the so-called Writing-Scale - with which he could measure the dynamics of writing in various dimensions and, in particular, the pressure of movements. The experiments produced a huge amount of data, but the psychiatrists were unable to interpret them in a comprehensible way. Although psychiatrists failed to grasp the psychopathology in handwriting, they discovered a systemic behaviour of the organism controlled by feedback.

Psychiatric governance, völkisch corporatism, and the German Research Institute of Psychiatry in Munich (1912-26). Part 2.

This is the second of two articles exploring in depth some of the early organizational strategies that were marshalled in efforts to found and develop the German Research Institute of Psychiatry (Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie). The first article analysed the strategies of psychiatric governance - best understood as a form of völkisch corporatism - that mobilized a group of stakeholders in the service of higher bio-political and hygienic ends. This second article examines how post-war imperatives and biopolitical agendas shaped the institute's organization and research. It also explores the financial challenges the institute faced amidst the collapse of the German financial system in the early Weimar Republic, including efforts to recruit financial support from the Rockefeller Foundation and other philanthropists in the USA.

Psychiatric governance, völkisch corporatism, and the German Research Institute of Psychiatry in Munich (1912-26). Part 1.

This is the first of two articles exploring in depth some of the early organizational strategies that were marshalled in efforts to found and develop the German Research Institute of Psychiatry (Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie) in 1917. After briefly discussing plans for a German research institute before World War I, the article examines the political strategies and networks that Emil Kraepelin used to recruit support for the institute. It argues that his efforts at psychiatric governance can best be understood as a form of völkisch corporatism which sought to mobilize and coordinate a group of players in the service of higher biopolitical and hygienic ends. The article examines the wartime arguments used to justify the institute, the list of protagonists actively engaged in recruiting financial and political support, the various social, scientific and political networks that they exploited, and the local contingencies that had to be negotiated in order to found the research institute.

Emil Kraepelin's concepts of the phenomenology and physiology of sleep: The first systematic description of chronotypes.

Emil Kraepelin is considered one of the most influential psychiatrists ever. His research on sleep, however, has received little attention to date. Therefore, Kraepelin's published work was reviewed, statements on the topic "sleep" identified, historically contextualized and compared with current knowledge. His assumptions on the "physiology of sleep" are rather speculative and not substantiated by own research. The opposite is true for his findings on the "phenomenology of sleep". For example, his results on sleep depth and sleep stages are not only in overall good agreement with current concepts, but also based on sleep studies. Of special relevance are his findings on chronotypes: Based on empirical clinical studies, neuropsychological experiments and sleep studies, Kraepelin systematically described a morning and evening disposition and intermediate types on the basis of the maximum physical capacity, cognitive ability and alertness/sleepiness during the day as well as sleeping habits. In fact, this concept is basically still valid and these aspects are being captured in morningness-eveningness scales. Our findings challenge the common notion that Nathaniel Kleitman was the first to systematically describe the morningness-eveningness dimension. Overall, we deem Kraepelin's contributions to sleep research, compiled here for the first time, well worth being acknowledged by modern sleep research.

Emil Kraepelin's ideas on transcultural psychiatry.

OBJECTIVE: Prevailing degeneration theory and an increasing number of people in inpatient mental treatment aroused the famous German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin's (1856-1926) interest to investigate whether the mental illnesses typical for Europe were also characteristic for 'primitive peoples'. He thus dedicated a period spent in the Dutch East Indies (Java) in 1904 to transcultural psychiatric research. This paper endeavours to compile Kraepelin's key findings, aiming to make readers aware of what kind of transcultural research Kraepelin did and what conclusions he came up with. At the same time it provides some background for the question of whether Kraepelin can really be referred to as the founder of transcultural psychiatry. CONCLUSION: Kraepelin assumed that illnesses with exterior causes depended on the type of stimulants widely used in a given culture. Since he found little evidence for progressive paralysis, he concluded that European brains were particularly prone to sequelae of syphilis. For endogenous psychoses he postulated differences in both symptoms and courses, depressions being rarer and milder, and ceasing sooner. By contrast, he found dementia praecox (mainly covered by the concept of schizophrenias later) to be the most prevalent mental illness in Java, explicitly different in form from that in Europe.

[The contributions by Emil Kraepelin to the knowledge on sleep disorders and their treatment]. / Die Beiträge von Emil Kraepelin zum Wissen über Schlafstörungen und deren Behandlung.

While Emil Kraepelin's comprehensive psychiatric oeuvre has attracted researchers' attention, his studies on sleep disorders and their treatment as well as on the interconnections between sleep and mental disorders so far seem to have been neglected.This article identifies and analyzes Kraepelin's sporadic contributions on the pathology of sleep, the comorbidities and treatment made between 1883 and 1924 in textbooks and isolated papers as well as in a presentation that was also published and compares them with current opinions in sleep research.Kraepelin never published a dedicated work on sleep, apart from a summary of the different narcotics; however, his occasional statements reveal astonishing insights and in particular his clear etiologically oriented classification of sleep disorders is captivating. Similar to the current classification, Kraepelin conceptualized sleep disorders as symptoms or rather a complex of symptoms and also identified associated diseases which once again are very near to current opinion. Apart from this his recommendations on sleep hygiene and, in a second step, pharmacological treatment of pathological sleep patterns are still clinically relevant. As early as the end of the nineteenth century Kraepelin laid down an algorithm of treatment which is very similar to the current clinical guidelines. At Kraepelin's time it seemed impossible to reach an agreement on classification and treatment issues of sleep disturbances and even though there has been an ongoing discussion until the present day, an agreement at least about guidelines could be reached. Against this background Kraepelin's contributions can still be regarded as a proposal for best practice.

Milestones in the history of personality disorders.

This paper analyzes the major historical milestones in the study of normal and abnormal personality, from antiquity up until the 20th century. Special attention is paid to the interaction between dimensional and typological approaches, which was a major issue during the preparation of DSM-5. Theories of personality started with the humoral theory of Greek medicine. Pinel, and later Esquirol and Prichard, are credited with the first descriptions of abnormal personalities in textbooks of psychiatry. Between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, elaborate systems of normal and abnormal personality, associating to some degree types and dimensions, were devised by a succession of European psychologists, such as Ribot, Heymans, and Lazursky. Emil Kraepelin and Kurt Schneider proposed classifications of abnormal personality types. In parallel, psychoanalysts stressed the role of early life experiences. Towards the mid-20th century, statistical methods were applied to the scientific validation of personality dimensions with pioneers such as Cattell, anticipating the five-factor model.

Este artículo analiza los principales hitos históricos en el estudio de la personalidad normal y anormal, desde la Antigüedad hasta el siglo XX. Se pone especial atención a la interacción entre las aproximaciones dimensionales y tipológicas, tema que fue importante durante la preparación del DSM-5. Las teorías de la personalidad se iniciaron con la teoría humoral de la medicina griega. En los textos de psiquiatría se reconoce a Pinel, y luego a Esquirol y Prichard como los primeros autores en describir las personalidades anormales. Una sucesión de psicólogos europeos como Ribot, Heymans y Lazursky, entre finales del siglo XIX y comienzos del XX, idearon complejos sistemas de personalidad normal y anormal, asociando en algún grado tipos y dimensiones. Emil Krepelin y Kurt Schneider propusieron clasificaciones de tipos de personalidad anormal. Paralelamente, los psicoanalistas destacaron el papel de las experiencias tempranas de la vida. Hacia mediados del siglo XX se aplicaron métodos estadísticos para la validación científica de las dimensiones de la personalidad con pioneros como Cattell, anticipando el modelo de cinco factores.

Cet article passe en revue les étapes majeures de l'histoire de l'étude des personnalités normales et pathologiques, depuis l'antiquité jusqu'au XXe siècle. Cette perspective historique permet de comprendre certains débats qui ont animé la préparation du DSM-5, notamment le choix entre une approche faisant appel à des catégories diagnostiques distinctes, selon un modèle kraepelinien, par opposition à une description de la personnalité normale ou pathologique par des dimensions, dans la suite de travaux qui ont culminé dans le modèle de la personnalité à cinq facteurs (dit Big Five).

O desenvolvimento inicial das ideias de Kraepelin sobre classificação: uma história conceitual / The first development of Kraepelin’s ideas on classification: a conceptual history / Le développement précoce des idées de Kraepelin sur la classification: une histoire conceptuelle / El desarrollo inicial de las ideas de Kraepelin sobre la clasificación: una historia conceptual

A Psiquiatria ainda vive em um mundo kraepeliniano e os estudos sobre a obra de Kraepelin são, por conseguinte, ahistóricos. A exegese seletiva das várias edições de seu tratado levaram a uma visão rígida sobre sua contribuição. No entanto, Kraepelin viveu e escreveu durante um período importante da história intelectual da Europa e sua obra só pode ser entendida neste contexto. Este artigo analisa o desenvolvimento de suas opiniões em termos do "Programa de Pesquisas" que ele planejou precocemente em sua vida e cujo objetivo era a criação de uma descrição estável e da classificação das psicoses. Isso Kraepelin eventualmente alcançou estudando longitudinalmente coortes de pacientes em termos de critérios metodológicos, tais como o curso da doença e a incurabilidade. No caso, esta metodologia permitiu-lhe identificar por correlação "quadros clínicos" que tanto representavam a "essência" da doença quanto forneciam um critério taxonómico. Embora declaradamente ateórico, Kraepelin assim conseguiu construir (influenciado por Kahlbaum e por Wundt) um suporte empírico para sua categorização kantiana das psicoses. Uma discussão sobre as variáveis culturais que moldaram essas ideias está aqui incluída.(AU)

Psychiatry is still living in Kraepelin's world. With this, studies on his writings are a-historical. The selective exegesis of the numerous editions of his book led to a rigid understanding of his contribution. But Kraepelin lived and wrote during an important period in European intellectual history and his writings can only be understood from this perspective. This article analyzes the development of his opinions in terms of the "program of studies" that he planned early in his life, the objective of which was to establish a stable description and classification of the psychoses. He eventually achieved this by longitudinally studying cohorts of patients using methodological criteria such as the course of psychosis and its incurability. In the case at hand, this methodology allowed him to use correlation to identify "clinical pictures" that both represented the "essence" of the disease and provided a taxonomic criterion. Although declaredly a-theoretical, Kraepelin (influenced by Kahlbaum and Wundt) thus managed to construct an empirical support for his Kantian categorization of the psychoses. A discussion on the cultural variables that forged these ideas is included here.(AU)

La psychiatrie vit encore dans un monde kraepelinien et les études sur le travail de Kraepelin sont donc non-historiques. L'exégèse sélective des diverses éditions de son livre a conduit à une conception rigide de sa contribution. Cependant, Kraepelin a vécu et a écrit pendant une période importante de l'histoire intellectuelle européenne et son œuvre ne peut être comprise que dans ce contexte. Cet article analyse le développement de ses points de vue en termes de ®Programme de Recherches» qu'il avait établi au début de sa vie et dont le but était de créer une description stable et la classification des psychoses. Kraepelin a atteint son but à travers une étude longitudinale de cohortes de patients en termes de critères méthodologiques, comme le cours de la maladie et l'incurabilité. Cette méthode lui a permis d'identifier, par corrélation, des ®cadres clinique» qui ne représentaient non seulement ®l'essence» de la maladie, mais qui fournissaient aussi un critère taxonomique. Bien que, selon son propre aveu, a-théorique, Kraepelin (influencé par Kahlbaum et Wundt) a réussi à construire, de cette façon, un support empirique pour sa catégorisation kantienne des psychoses. Cet article contient d'ailleurs une discussion sur les variables culturelles qui ont façonnées ces idées.(AU)

La psiquiatria aún vive en un mundo kraepeliano y los estudios sobre la obra de Kraepelin son, consecuentemente, no-históricos. La exegesis selectiva de las varias ediciones de su libro llevaron a una visión rígida sobre su contribución. Sin embargo, Kraepelin vivió y escribió durante un periodo importante de la historia intelectual de Europa y su obra solo puede ser comprendida en este contexto. Este artículo analiza el desarrollo de sus opiniones de acuerdo a los términos del "Programa de investición" que él, tempranamente, planeó en su vida y cuyo objetivo era la creación de una descripción estable y una clasificación de las psicosis. Eso, eventualmente, Kraepelin consiguió estudiando longitudinalmente un conjunto de pacientes según criterios metodológicos, como el curso de la enfermedad y de la incurabilidad. En ese caso, esta metodlogia le permitió identificar por correlación "cuadros clínicos" que representaban la "esencia" de la enfermedad así como ofrecían un criterio taxonónmico. A pesar de claramente a-teórico, Kraepelin consiguió de este modo construir (influenciado por Kahlbaum y Wundt) una base empírica para su categorización kantiana de las psicosis. Una discusión sobre las variables culturales que modelaron esas ideas está incluída.(AU)

O desenvolvimento inicial das ideias de kraepelin sobre classificação: uma história conceitual / The first development of kraepelin’s ideas on classification: a conceptual history / Le développement précoce des idées de kraepelin sur la classification: une histoire conceptuelle / El desarrollo inicial de las ideas de kraepelin sobre la clasificación: una historia conceptual

A Psiquiatria ainda vive em um mundo kraepeliniano e os estudos sobre a obra de Kraepelin são, por conseguinte, ahistóricos. A exegese seletiva das várias edições de seu tratado levaram a uma visão rígida sobre sua contribuição. No entanto, Kraepelin viveu e escreveu durante um período importante da história intelectual da Europa e sua obra só pode ser entendida neste contexto. Este artigo analisa o desenvolvimento de suas opiniões em termos do "Programa de Pesquisas" que ele planejou precocemente em sua vida e cujo objetivo era a criação de uma descrição estável e da classificação das psicoses. Isso Kraepelin eventualmente alcançou estudando longitudinalmente coortes de pacientes em termos de critérios metodológicos, tais como o curso da doença e a incurabilidade. No caso, esta metodologia permitiu-lhe identificar por correlação "quadros clínicos" que tanto representavam a "essência" da doença quanto forneciam um critério taxonómico. Embora declaradamente ateórico, Kraepelin assim conseguiu construir (influenciado por Kahlbaum e por Wundt) um suporte empírico para sua categorização kantiana das psicoses. Uma discussão sobre as variáveis culturais que moldaram essas ideias está aqui incluída.

Psychiatry is still living in Kraepelin's world. With this, studies on his writings are a-historical. The selective exegesis of the numerous editions of his book led to a rigid understanding of his contribution. But Kraepelin lived and wrote during an important period in European intellectual history and his writings can only be understood from this perspective. This article analyzes the development of his opinions in terms of the "program of studies" that he planned early in his life, the objective of which was to establish a stable description and classification of the psychoses. He eventually achieved this by longitudinally studying cohorts of patients using methodological criteria such as the course of psychosis and its incurability. In the case at hand, this methodology allowed him to use correlation to identify "clinical pictures" that both represented the "essence" of the disease and provided a taxonomic criterion. Although declaredly a-theoretical, Kraepelin (influenced by Kahlbaum and Wundt) thus managed to construct an empirical support for his Kantian categorization of the psychoses. A discussion on the cultural variables that forged these ideas is included here.

La psychiatrie vit encore dans un monde kraepelinien et les études sur le travail de Kraepelin sont donc non-historiques. L'exégèse sélective des diverses éditions de son livre a conduit à une conception rigide de sa contribution. Cependant, Kraepelin a vécu et a écrit pendant une période importante de l'histoire intellectuelle européenne et son œuvre ne peut être comprise que dans ce contexte. Cet article analyse le développement de ses points de vue en termes de ®Programme de Recherches¼ qu'il avait établi au début de sa vie et dont le but était de créer une description stable et la classification des psychoses. Kraepelin a atteint son but à travers une étude longitudinale de cohortes de patients en termes de critères méthodologiques, comme le cours de la maladie et l'incurabilité. Cette méthode lui a permis d'identifier, par corrélation, des ®cadres clinique¼ qui ne représentaient non seulement ®l'essence¼ de la maladie, mais qui fournissaient aussi un critère taxonomique. Bien que, selon son propre aveu, a-théorique, Kraepelin (influencé par Kahlbaum et Wundt) a réussi à construire, de cette façon, un support empirique pour sa catégorisation kantienne des psychoses. Cet article contient d'ailleurs une discussion sur les variables culturelles qui ont façonnées ces idées.

La psiquiatria aún vive en un mundo kraepeliano y los estudios sobre la obra de Kraepelin son, consecuentemente, no-históricos. La exegesis selectiva de las varias ediciones de su libro llevaron a una visión rígida sobre su contribución. Sin embargo, Kraepelin vivió y escribió durante un periodo importante de la historia intelectual de Europa y su obra solo puede ser comprendida en este contexto. Este artículo analiza el desarrollo de sus opiniones de acuerdo a los términos del "Programa de investición" que él, tempranamente, planeó en su vida y cuyo objetivo era la creación de una descripción estable y una clasificación de las psicosis. Eso, eventualmente, Kraepelin consiguió estudiando longitudinalmente un conjunto de pacientes según criterios metodológicos, como el curso de la enfermedad y de la incurabilidad. En ese caso, esta metodlogia le permitió identificar por correlación "cuadros clínicos" que representaban la "esencia" de la enfermedad así como ofrecían un criterio taxonónmico. A pesar de claramente a-teórico, Kraepelin consiguió de este modo construir (influenciado por Kahlbaum y Wundt) una base empírica para su categorización kantiana de las psicosis. Una discusión sobre las variables culturales que modelaron esas ideas está incluída.