Five-years post commercial approval monitoring of eucalyptus H421.

Eucalyptus comprises the largest planted area of cultivated production forest in Brazil. Genetic modification of eucalyptus can provide additional characteristics for increasing productivity, protecting plant yield, and potentially altering fiber for various industrial uses. With this objective, a transgenic eucalyptus variety, event H421, received regulatory approval for commercial release after 6 years of approved risk assessment studies by the Brazilian National Technical Biosafety Commission (CTNBio) in 2015, becoming the first approved genetically modified (GM) eucalyptus in the world. GM event H421 enables increased plant biomass accumulation through overexpression of the Arabidopsis 1,4-ß-endoglucanase Cel1, which remodels the xyloglucan-cellulose matrix of the cell wall during development to promote cell expansion and growth. As required, in that time, by the current normative from CTNBio, a post-commercial release monitoring plan for H421 was submitted, incorporating general surveillance for five consecutive years with the submission of annual reports. The monitoring plan was conducted on fields of H421 progenies, with conventional clones as comparators, cultivated in representative regions where eucalyptus is cultivated in the states of São Paulo, Bahia, and Maranhão, representing Southeast, Northeast, and Northern Brazil. Over the course of the five-year general surveillance monitoring plan for the approved GM eucalyptus H421, no adverse effect that could impact the biosafety of the commercially approved event was identified. Additionally, the GM eucalyptus exhibited behavior highly consistent with that of conventional commercial clones. Therefore, there was no need for an extra risk assessment study of a case-specific monitoring plan. The results show the importance of continuously updating the regulation norms of governmental agencies to align with scientific advances.

The Transcription Factor HaHB11 Boosts Grain Set and Yield in Rice Plants, Allowing Them to Approach Their Ideal Phenotype.

The ideal rice phenotype is that of plants exhibiting fewer panicles with high biomass, large grain number, flag leaf area with small insertion angles, and an erected morphology improving light interception. The sunflower transcription factor HaHB11, homeodomain-leucine zipper I, confers increased seed yield and abiotic stress tolerance to Arabidopsis and maize. Here, we report the obtaining and characterization of rice plants expressing HaHB11 driven by its promoter or the 35S constitutive one. Transgenic p35S:HaHB11 plants closely resembled the ideal high-yield phenotype, whereas those carrying the pHaHB11:HaHB11 construct were hard to distinguish from the wild type. The former had an erected architecture, enhanced vegetative leaf biomass, rolled flag leaves with a larger surface, sharper insertion angles insensitive to brassinosteroids, and higher harvest index and seed biomass than the wild type. The combination of the distinct features exhibited by p35S:HaHB11 plants, including the increased number of set grains per panicle, supports the high-yield phenotype. We wondered where HaHB11 has to be expressed to achieve the high-yield phenotype and evaluated HaHB11 expression levels in all tissues. The results indicate that its expression is particularly necessary in the flag leaf and panicle to produce the ideal phenotype.

Survivorship and food consumption of immatures and adults of Apis mellifera and Scaptotrigona bipunctata exposed to genetically modified eucalyptus pollen.

Eucalyptus comprises the largest planted area of cultivated production forest in Brazil. Genetic modification (GM) of eucalyptus can provide additional characteristics for increasing productivity and protecting wood yield, as well as potentially altering fiber for a diversity of industrial uses. However, prior to releasing a new GM plant, risk assessments studies with non-target organisms must be undertaken. Bees are prominent biological models since they play an important role in varied ecosystems, including for Eucalyptus pollination. The main goal of this study was to evaluate whether a novel event (Eucalyptus 751K032), which carries the cp4-epsps gene that encodes the protein CP4-EPSPS and nptII gene that encodes the protein NPTII, might adversely affect honey bees (Apis mellifera) and stingless bees (Scaptotrigona bipunctata). The experiments were performed in southern Brazil, as follows: (i) larvae and adults were separately investigated, (ii) three or four different pollen diets were offered to bees, depending on larval or adult status, and (iii) two biological attributes, i.e., survivorship of larvae and adults and food intake by adults were evaluated. The diets were prepared with pollen from GM Eucalyptus 751K032; pollen from conventional Eucalyptus clone FGN-K, multifloral pollen or pure larval food. The insecticide dimethoate was used to evaluate the sensitivity of bees to toxic substances. Datasets were analyzed with Chi-square test, survival curves and repeated measures ANOVA. Results indicated no evidence of adverse effects of Eucalyptus pollen 751K032 on either honey bees or stingless bees assessed here. Therefore, the main findings suggest that the novel event may be considered harmless to these organisms since neither survivorship nor food consumption by bees were affected by it.

Genetically modified organisms: adapting regulatory frameworks for evolving genome editing technologies.

Genetic modification of living organisms has been a prosperous activity for research and development of agricultural, industrial and biomedical applications. Three decades have passed since the first genetically modified products, obtained by transgenesis, become available to the market. The regulatory frameworks across the world have not been able to keep up to date with new technologies, monitoring and safety concerns. New genome editing techniques are opening new avenues to genetic modification development and uses, putting pressure on these frameworks. Here we discuss the implications of definitions of living/genetically modified organisms, the evolving genome editing tools to obtain them and how the regulatory frameworks around the world have taken these technologies into account, with a focus on agricultural crops. Finally, we expand this review beyond commercial crops to address living modified organism uses in food industry, biomedical applications and climate change-oriented solutions.

Transgene Flow: Challenges to the On-Farm Conservation of Maize Landraces in the Brazilian Semi-Arid Region.

Brazil is one of the largest global producers of genetically modified crops and a center of origin and diversification of relevant species for agriculture and food. Transgenic monocultures occupy around 50 million hectares, whereas smallholder farmers, indigenous people, and traditional communities are responsible for in-situ/on-Farm conservation of local genetic resources. Based on 15 years of expertise in regulating GMOs and in cross-institutional agrobiodiversity conservation projects, this article discusses the challenges regarding the coexistence of these two agricultural models based on transgene flow detection in maize landraces. As part of a broad and unique participatory transgene-flow-monitoring process, 1098 samples of maize landraces were collected in the Brazilian Semi-arid Region between 2018 and 2021 and analyzed using immunochromatographic strips. The tests revealed 34% of samples with presence of GM proteins. It is concluded that the biosafety standards in force in Brazil do not allow the assurance of on-Farm conservation of maize. The sectors that contribute to agrobiodiversity conservation and do not benefit from using GM seeds are taking on the burden of this process. Transgene flow can be reduced by approving and enforcing more effective coexistence rules that consider maize landraces crop areas also as seed-producing areas added to full disclosure of commercial seeds origin.

The Effect of Resistance to Bt Corn on the Reproductive Output of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

The fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda is the most significant lepidopteran corn pest in South American countries. Transgenic Bt corn, producing the Cry1Fa toxins, has been used to control this pest, but there is clear evidence that some FAW populations have developed resistance. To determine if there are costs associated with resistance, we compared the mass of adults, the duration of mating, and the mass of the first spermatophore produced, as well as the lifetime fecundity and fertility of once-mated susceptible (SS) and resistant (RR) females. Adult mass was affected by both sex and strain, with SS females being significantly larger than RR ones, while the inverse was true for males. RR pairs took significantly longer to mate than SS pairs, yet the mass of spermatophores produced by RR males was significantly less than those of SS males. The total number of eggs laid did not differ but the fertility of eggs from once-mated RR pairs was significantly lower than that of SS pairs. Our data provided clear evidence that the development of Bt resistance affected the reproductive capacity of resistant FAW.

Genetically modified organisms: adapting regulatory frameworks for evolving genome editing technologies

Genetic modification of living organisms has been a prosperous activity for research and development of agricultural, industrial and biomedical applications. Three decades have passed since the first genetically modified products, obtained by transgenesis, become available to the market. The regulatory frameworks across the world have not been able to keep up to date with new technologies, monitoring and safety concerns. New genome editing techniques are opening new avenues to genetic modification development and uses, putting pressure on these frameworks. Here we discuss the implications of definitions of living/genetically modified organisms, the evolving genome editing tools to obtain them and how the regulatory frameworks around the world have taken these technologies into account, with a focus on agricultural crops. Finally, we expand this review beyond commercial crops to address living modified organism uses in food industry, biomedical applications and climate change-oriented solutions.

Coexistence of genetically modified seed production and organic farming in Chile.

The seed industry in Chile has thrived since the implementation of a stringent, voluntarily self-imposed coexistence strategy between genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and non-GMO seed activities. GMO varieties of maize, soybean, and canola represent the vast majority of biotech seeds produced in Chile. Chile's exports of genetically modified (GM) seeds and organically grown food products (which excludes GM seeds and materials) continue to expand. Organic Chilean farmers predominantly produce and export fruits such as blueberries, wine grapes, and apples. Under normal agricultural conditions, the inadvertent presence of GMOs in non-GMO or organic crops cannot be ruled out. Producers of organic foods are required to implement stringent measures to minimize contact with any non-organic crop, regardless of whether these crops are GM. Only very small amounts of organic maize, soybean, and canola - if any - have been produced in Chile in recent years. Given the characteristics and nature of Chile's agriculture, the direct impact of the GM seed industry on organic farming in Chile is likely to be negligible. The Chilean experience with coexistence between GM seed and organic industries may inform other countries interested in providing its farmers with alternative agricultural production systems.

Evidence of Food Safety in Relation to Cry Proteins in Genetically Modified Foods / Evidencias sobre seguridad alimentaria con relación a Cry proteínas en alimentos transgénicos

Abstract Developments in applying biotechnology to crops have generated strong ethical and social debates about its use. This study was aimed at reviewing epidemiological evidence regarding the consumption of genetically modified foods and the possible effects on human health, particularly certain insect-resistant crops in which isolated Bacillum thurigiensis Cry protein has been introduced. An in-depth review of databases was conducted for 2007-2019. Articles not referring to human health were excluded. In total, 1,350 were obtained and 118 were reviewed. As a result, it can be concluded that most studies have focused on chemical composition and in vitro or laboratory animal trials. Furthermore, the guiding principle of substantial equivalency, generally used today to evaluate potential health effects, should not replace rigorously evaluating products with nutritional, immunological, and toxicological trials. Lastly, this review demonstrates a lack of epidemiological evidence, and therefore, the safety of these foods cannot be conclusively determined based on evidence.

Resumen El desarrollo de la biotecnología aplicada a los cultivos ha generado fuertes debates éticos y sociales sobre su uso. El presente estudio tuvo por objetivo revisar las evidencias epidemiológicas existentes relacionando el consumo de alimentos genéticamente modificados, en particular aquellos provenientes de cultivos con resistencia a algunos insectos plagas en los que se han introducido proteínas Cry aisladas de Bacillum thurigiensis con probables daños o trastornos en la salud de las personas. Se realizó una revisión en profundidad en el periodo 2007 a 2019, en bases de datos. Se excluyeron aquellos artículos que no hacían referencia a salud humana. Se obtuvieron 1 350 y finalmente se revisaron 118. La revisión permitió concluir que la mayoría de los estudios existentes se centran en información respecto a la composición química y ensayos in vitro o en laboratorio con animales. Igualmente, que el principio rector de equivalencia sustancial hoy utilizado en forma generalizada para la evaluación de potenciales efectos en salud, no debería sustituir la necesidad de una evaluación rigurosa de los productos incluyendo ensayos nutricionales, inmunológicos y toxicológicos. Por último se comprueba también que la evidencia epidemiológica incluida es insuficiente por lo que lo que no es posible concluir a partir de ella, sobre la inocuidad de estos alimentos.

PEG-Delivered CRISPR-Cas9 Ribonucleoproteins System for Gene-Editing Screening of Maize Protoplasts.

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9 technology allows the modification of DNA sequences in vivo at the location of interest. Although CRISPR-Cas9 can produce genomic changes that do not require DNA vector carriers, the use of transgenesis for the stable integration of DNA coding for gene-editing tools into plant genomes is still the most used approach. However, it can generate unintended transgenic integrations, while Cas9 prolonged-expression can increase cleavage at off-target sites. In addition, the selection of genetically modified cells from millions of treated ones, especially plant cells, is still challenging. In a protoplast system, previous studies claimed that such pitfalls would be averted by delivering pre-assembled ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs) composed of purified recombinant Cas9 enzyme and in vitro transcribed guide RNA (gRNA) molecules. We, therefore, aimed to develop the first DNA-free protocol for gene-editing in maize and introduced RNPs into their protoplasts with polyethylene glycol (PEG) 4000. We performed an effective transformation of maize protoplasts using different gRNAs sequences targeting the inositol phosphate kinase gene, and by applying two different exposure times to RNPs. Using a low-cost Sanger sequencing protocol, we observed an efficiency rate of 0.85 up to 5.85%, which is equivalent to DNA-free protocols used in other plant species. A positive correlation was displayed between the exposure time and mutation frequency. The mutation frequency was gRNA sequence- and exposure time-dependent. In the present study, we demonstrated that the suitability of RNP transfection was proven as an effective screening platform for gene-editing in maize. This efficient and relatively easy assay method for the selection of gRNA suitable for the editing of the gene of interest will be highly useful for genome editing in maize, since the genome size and GC-content are large and high in the maize genome, respectively. Nevertheless, the large amplitude of mutations at the target site require scrutiny when checking mutations at off-target sites and potential safety concerns.

Chile as a key enabler country for global plant breeding, agricultural innovation, and biotechnology.

Chile has become one of the main global players in seed production for counter-season markets and research purposes. Chile has a key role contributing to the reduction in seed production shortages in the Northern Hemisphere by speeding up the development of new hybrids, cultivars, and genetically modified (GM) organisms. The seeds that Chile produces for export include a considerable amount of GM seeds. Between 2009 and 2018, 1,081 different seed-planting events were undertaken for seed multiplication and/or research purposes. Every single event that had commodity cultivation status in 2018 in at least one country underwent field activities in Chile at least once over the last 10 y. Chile just adopted a regulatory approach for new plant breeding techniques. This type of regulatory approach should contribute to maintaining the status of Chile as a hot spot for future innovation in plant breeding-based biotechnology.

Argentina's Local Crop Biotechnology Developments: Why Have They Not Reached the Market Yet?

Plant biotechnology in Argentina started at the end of the 1980s, leading to the development of numerous research groups in public institutions and, a decade later, to some local private initiatives. The numerous scientific and technological capacities existing in the country allowed the early constitution in 1991 of a sound genetically modified organisms biosafety regulatory system. The first commercial approvals began in 1996, and to date, 59 events have obtained permits to be placed on the market, however, only two have been developed locally by public-private partnerships. The transgenic events developed at public institutions pursue different objectives in diverse crops. However, once these events have been developed in laboratories, it is difficult to move toward a possible commercial approval. In this work, we analyze several reasons that could explain why local developments have not reached approvals for commercialization, highlighting aspects related to the lack of strategic vision in the institutions to focus resources on projects to develop biotechnological products. Although progress has been made in generating regulatory rules adapted to research institutes (such as the regulations for biosafety greenhouses and ways of presenting applications), researchers still do not conceive regulatory science as a discipline. They generally prefer not to be involved in the design of regulatory field trials or regulatory issues related to the evaluation of events. In that sense, some of the aspects considered a regulatory affairs platform for the public scientific system and the reinforcement of laboratories that perform tests required under the Argentine regulation.

Synthetic multi-antibiotic resistant plasmids in plant-associated bacteria from agricultural soils.

OBJECTIVES: Unlike higher organisms such as domestic animals and cultivated plants, which display a robust reproductive isolation and limited dispersal ability, microbes exhibit an extremely promiscuous gene flow and can rapidly disperse across the planet by multiple ways. Thus, microbial plasmids, including synthetic replicons, containing antibiotic resistance genes are a serious risk to public health. In this short communication, we explored the presence of synthetic elements in alfalfa symbionts (Ensifer meliloti strains) from agricultural soils. METHODS: A total of 148 E. meliloti isolates from alfalfa plants growing under field conditions were collected from January 2015 to June 2019. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed under laboratory conditions. We identified five kanamycin-resistant E. meliloti strains (named K1-K5). Whole genome sequencing analysis and conjugations were used to identify and study the plasmids of K strains. RESULTS: We found that the genomes of K strains contain ampicillin, kanamycin and tetracycline resistance genes, the reporter gene lacZ from Escherichia coli and multiple cloning sites. These sequences were found within <58-kb plasmids related to the self-transmissible IncP plasmid RP4 from human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Conjugation experiments confirmed the ability of K strains to transfer antibiotic resistance via conjugation to the Pseudomonas background. CONCLUSION: In addition to the traditional analysis of plant growth-promoting factors, the commercial deregulation of putative natural inoculants should also include genomic studies to ensure a reasonable balance between innovation and caution.

Regulatory aspects of gene editing in Argentina.

Argentina is a world leader in regards to regulation and adoption of genetically modified (GM) crops. As a consequence, the regulatory aspects of gene editing applied to agriculture were considered proactively by the Argentinian regulators, who implemented simple but solid pioneering regulatory criteria for gene edited crops. At present, the Argentine regulatory system is fully able to establish if a gene-edited crop should be classified (and handled) either as a GM crop or a conventional new variety. To this end, the concept of "novel combination of genetic material" derived from the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is of decisive importance. After some pilot cases that have been managed under this criteria, now applicants appreciate the ease, speed and predictability of the regulation. Moreover, it has been considered by other countries in the course of developing their own regulations, thus acting also as a harmonization factor for the safe and effective insertion of these technologies in the global market.

Transgênicos e o princípio de equivalência substancial / Transgenics and the principle of substantial equivalence

Objetivamos discutir os principais argumentos que estão envolvidos no debate sobre a cientificidade do Princípio de Equivalência Substancial (PES), que afirma serem os OGM quimicamente equivalentes aos organismos selecionados pelas técnicas tradicionais de melhoramento, não requerendo, portanto, estudos toxicológicos adicionais. Problematizamos a cientificidade do PES, especialmente no que diz respeito à questão propriamente química. De fato, o PES estrutura-se conceitualmente na comparação quantitativa entre alguns componentes químico-biológicos da planta transgênica e os da não transgênica. Nesse sentido, as análises químicas propostas não conseguem relacionar sozinhas os possíveis efeitos bioquímicos, toxicológicos e imunológicos dos alimentos transgênicos, pois o princípio restringe as análises à composição química, molecular e analítica dos transgênicos. Emerge assim o problema do locus da incerteza científica, seja como questão epistemológica, seja como questão normativa e moral.

We aim to discuss the main arguments involved in the debate on the scientificity of the Principle of Substantial Equivalence (PSE), which claims that GMOs are chemically equivalent to organisms selected by traditional breeding techniques and therefore do not require additional toxicological studies. We question the scientific character of the PSE, especially with regard to the chemical question itself. Indeed, the PSE is conceptually structured in the quantitative comparison between some chemical--biological components of the transgenic plant and those of the non-transgenic plant. In this sense, the proposed chemical analyses cannot by themselves assess the possi-ble biochemical, toxicological and immunological effects of transgenic foods, since the principle restricts the analysis to the chemical, molecular and analytical composition of transgenics. This gives rise to the problem of the locus of scientific uncertainty, whether as an epistemological question or as a normative and moral issue.

Agricultura transgénica. Una valoración bioética del caso colombiano / Transgenic Agriculture. A Bioethical Assessment of the Colombian Case / Agricultura transgênica. Uma avaliação bioética do caso colombiano

Resumen La tecnología transgénica promete alcanzar, entre varios objetivos del desarrollo sostenible, la superación del hambre y la pobreza en el mundo. Por ello, la adopción de esta tecnología es relativamente creciente, sin embargo, también hay posiciones que señalan los problemas que trae consigo tal expansión. Este artículo es una reflexión derivada de una investigación sobre las implicaciones bioéticas de la adopción de la tecnología transgénica para la agricultura en Colombia. El propósito es sustentar que en esta adopción hay un riesgo bioético. En el texto se hace una aproximación a la problemática que surge de la confrontación de argumentos a favor y en contra respecto de la adopción de esta tecnología, de otra parte, se señala el absolutismo del aspecto económico rentista en la disposición de los transgénicos y, en tercera instancia, se establecen las dificultades generales de la normativa nacional colombiana respecto del control y la vigilancia de los organismos modificados genéticamente. Finalmente, se expone de manera puntual las implicaciones éticas que subyacen en la adopción de esta tecnología, que va desde la ilusión de una tecnología transformativa, pasando por la voluntad política gubernamental hasta su disposición final en el consumidor.

Abstract Transgenic technology promises, among several sustainable development objectives, to overcome hunger and poverty in the world and, therefore, the adoption of this technology is relatively growing. However, there are positions that point out the issues brought by such expansion. This article is a reflection derived from a research project on the bioethical implications of adopting transgenic technology for agriculture in Colombia. The aim is to justify that this adoption poses a bioethical risk. The paper, on the one hand, addresses the problem arising from confronting arguments for and against the adoption of this technology and, on the other hand, notes the absolutism of the economic aspect in the provision of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and the general difficulties of Colombian national regulations with regard to the control and surveillance of GMOs. Finally, it specifically expounds the bioethical implications underlying the adoption from the illusion of a transformative technology, going through the political will of the government, to its final delivery to the consumer.

Resumo A tecnologia transgênica promete atingir, entre vários objetivos do desenvolvimento sustentável, a superação da fome e da pobreza no mundo. Por isso, a adoção dessa tecnologia é relativamente crescente; contudo, também há posições que indicam os problemas que essa expansão traz consigo. Este artigo é uma reflexão derivada de uma pesquisa sobre as implicações bioéticas da adoção da tecnologia transgênica para a agricultura na Colômbia. O propósito é sustentar que, nessa adoção, há um risco bioético. Neste texto, faz-se uma aproximação da problemática que surge do enfrentamento de argumentos a favor da adoção dessa tecnologia e argumentos contra ela; de outro lado, indica-se o absolutismo do aspecto econômico rentista na disposição dos transgênicos e, em terceiro lugar, estabelecem-se as dificuldades gerais da normativa nacional colombiana quanto ao controle e vigilância dos organismos modificados geneticamente. Finalmente, expõem-se, de maneira pontual, as implicações éticas que subjazem na adoção dessa tecnologia, que vai desde a ilusão de uma tecnologia transformadora, passando pela vontade política governamental até sua disposição final no consumidor.

Evaluation of the Impact of Genetically Modified Cotton After 20 Years of Cultivation in Mexico.

For more than 20 years cotton has been the most widely sown genetically modified (GM) crop in Mexico. Its cultivation has fulfilled all requirements and has gone through the different regulatory stages. During the last 20 years, both research-institutions and biotech-companies have generated scientific and technical information regarding GM cotton cultivation in Mexico. In this work, we collected data in order to analyze the environmental and agronomic effects of the use of GM cotton in Mexico. In 1996, the introduction of Bt cotton made it possible to reactivate this crop, which in previous years was greatly reduced due to pest problems, production costs and environmental concerns. Bt cotton is a widely accepted tool for cotton producers and has proven to be efficient for the control of lepidopteran pests. The economic benefits of its use are variable, and depend on factors such as the international cotton-prices and other costs associated with its inputs. So far, the management strategies used to prevent development of insect resistance to GM cotton has been successful, and there are no reports of insect resistance development to Bt cotton in Mexico. In addition, no effects have been observed on non-target organisms. For herbicide tolerant cotton, the prevention of herbicide resistance has also been successful since unlike other countries, the onset of resistance weeds is still slow, apparently due to cultural practices and rotation of different herbicides. Environmental benefits have been achieved with a reduction in chemical insecticide applications and the subsequent decrease in primary pest populations, so that the inclusion of other technologies-e.g., use of non-Bt cotton- can be explored. Nevertheless, control measures need to be implemented during transport of the bolls and fiber to prevent dispersal of volunteer plants and subsequent gene flow to wild relatives distributed outside the GM cotton growing areas. It is still necessary to implement national research programs, so that biotechnology and plant breeding advances can be used in the development of cotton varieties adapted to the Mexican particular environmental conditions and to control insect pests of regional importance.

Gene flow in Argentinian sunflowers as revealed by genotyping-by-sequencing data.

Gene flow can have several different applied consequences, ranging from extinction to the escape of transgenes to the evolution of weedy or invasive lineages. Here, we describe patterns of hybridization and gene flow involving domesticated and wild sunflowers in Argentina. To address the risks of introgression of variants from the cultivated sunflower into invasive wild Helianthus, we used genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) to genotype 182 samples from 11 sites in Argentina, along with previously published data from samples from the native range (North America), to determine the native source populations of the Argentinian samples and to detect admixture. We unexpectedly discovered two distinctive forms of H. petiolaris in Argentina, one from H. petiolaris subsp. petiolaris as expected, but the other from an unknown source. Extensive admixture was observed among Argentinian sunflowers, largely confirming phenotypic predictions. While many hybrids are F1s, there were signals consistent with introgression from the domesticated sunflower into H. petiolaris. Whether this introgression is incidental or a causal driver of invasiveness is not yet clear, but it seems likely that genes found in the domesticated sunflower genome (whether engineered or not) will quickly find their way into wild Argentinian sunflower populations.

Characterization of scientific studies usually cited as evidence of adverse effects of GM food/feed.

GM crops are the most studied crops in history. Approximately 5% of the safety studies on them show adverse effects that are a cause for concern and tend to be featured in media reports. Although these reports are based on just a handful of GM events, they are used to cast doubt on all GM crops. Furthermore, they tend to come from just a few laboratories and are published in less important journals. Importantly, a close examination of these reports invariably shows methodological flaws that invalidate any conclusions of adverse effects. Twenty years after commercial cultivation of GM crops began, a bona fide report of an adverse health effect due to a commercialized modification in a crop has yet to be reported.

A research program for the socioeconomic impacts of gene editing regulation.

Gene editing technologies are a group of recent innovations in plant breeding using molecular biology, which have in common the capability of introducing a site-directed mutation or deletion in the genome. The first cases of crops improved with these technologies are approaching the market; this has raised an international debate regarding if they should be regulated as genetically modified crops or just as another form of mutagenesis under conventional breeding. This dilemma for policymakers not only entails issues pertaining safety information and legal/regulatory definitions. It also demands borrowing tools developed in the field of social studies of science and technology, as an additional basis for sound decision making.