Impact of permanganate with polyaluminium chloride on algae-laden karst water: Behaviors and disinfection by-products control.

The removal of algal organic matter (AOM) through water treatment processes is a major approach of reducing the formation of disinfection by-products (DBP). Here, the formation of DBP from AOM in karst water under different combination of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and polyaluminium chloride (PACl) was investigated. The effect of divalent ions (Ca2+ and Mg2+) on DBP formation was traced by AOM chemistry variations. For DBP formation after KMnO4 preoxidation, total carbonaceous DBPs (C-DBPs) decreased by 12.9% but nitrogen-containing DBPs (N-DBPs) increased by 18.8%. Conversely, the C-DBPs further increased by 3.3% but N-DBPs reduced by 10.7% after the addition of PACl besides KMnO4 preoxidation. The variations of aromatic protein-like, soluble microbial products-like compounds and ultraviolet absorbance at 254 nm (UV254) were highly correlated with the formation of DBPs, which suggest aromatic substances strongly affect DBP behaviors at different treatment conditions. In the presence of divalent ions (Ca2+ = 135.86 mg/L, Mg2+ = 18.51 mg/L), the combination of KMnO4 and PACl was more effective in controlling DBP formation compared to the situation without Ca2+ and Mg2+. Specifically, trichloromethane formation was largely inhibited compared to the other tested DBPs, which may refer to complexation of electron-donating groups via divalent ions. While Ca2+ and Mg2+ may not affect the nature of α-carbon and amine groups, so the variation of haloacetonitriles (HANs) was not obvious. The study enhances the understanding of the DBP formation patterns, transformation of carbon and nitrogen by preoxidation-coagulation (KMnO4-PACl) treatment in algae-laden karst water.

Risk assessment of karst water inrush in tunnel engineering based on improved game theory and uncertainty measure theory.

The sudden inrush of water poses a serious threat to the safety of workers during tunnel construction in the karst region of southwest China. To mitigate this risk, a model is proposed to assess the risk of water surge through a tunnel by combining improved game theory with uncertainty measure theory. Eight indicators of risk were extracted based on the solubility of rock, its geological structure, capacity for surface catchment, and hydrogeological factors, and were incorporated into the proposed model. The subjective weights of these indicators were obtained using the analytic hierarchy process, while their objective weights were calculated through the entropy weighting method and the criteria importance through intercriteria correlation method. An improved game theory-based method of combinatorial weighting was then used to construct the corresponding weight vectors. Single-indicator measurement functions and multi-indicator measurement matrices were utilized to classify and evaluate the indicators of the risk of a surge in water level based on a confidence criterion. The proposed method was applied to five typical karst sections of the Yanjin Tunnel of the Chongqing-Kunming High-speed Railway Project, and the method was validated by comparing the recorded and estimated inflow volume ranges during the project's construction, showing consistency with the actual evaluation results. This proposed model thus offers a practical tool for assessing the risk of water inrush in karst tunnels.

[Chemical Characteristics and Genetic Analysis of Karst Groundwater in the Beijing Xishan Area].

As an important water supply source in Beijing， karst groundwater has played an irreplaceable role in the security of urban water supply and ecological environment protection in the past 70 years. The Xishan karst groundwater system， located in the upper reaches of western Beijing， belongs to ecological conservation areas. There are several centralized water supply fields in this area. In this study， the Xishan karst groundwater system was taken as the research object. A total of 120 karst groundwater samples in this area were investigated by using statistical analysis， ion ratio， and principal component analysis （PCA） methods to explore the spatial distribution characteristics and formation mechanism of groundwater hydrochemistry. The research results showed that： ① the groundwater quality of the Xishan system was generally good， with the characteristics of neutral pH and low salinity. A total of 84.17% of the water samples were classified as hard water. The chemical type of groundwater was mainly HCO3-Ca·Mg. ② The chemical composition of groundwater was mainly affected by the water-rock interaction， and the weathering source of rock was mainly the dissolution of carbonate. ③ The results of principal component analysis showed that 34.41% of the chemistry formation of groundwater could be explained by carbonate dissolution， 27.33% by rock salt and evaporate dissolution， 11.76% by aquifer sediment dissolution， and 10.30% by domestic sewage discharge. From the recharge area to the runoff area and then to the discharge area， the TH and TDS gradually increased. Coal mining drainage and human activities were the main factors that caused groundwater degradation and variable hydrochemical types in the piedmont. In the future， it is necessary to further strengthen environmental governance， control point and non-point source pollution， and continuously monitor key areas to provide scientific support for ecological and environmental protection.

[Heavy Metal Pollution and Health Risk Assessment in Karst Basin Around a Lead-Zinc Mine].

Water quality is one of the most important environmental issues in the sustainable development of karst areas. To investigate heavy metal pollution and assess health risk in karst water basins around mines, 18 groups of water samples were collected from the river and groundwater in the Sidi River karst basin, and the concentrations of nine types of heavy metals(Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Mn, Fe, As, Cr, and Sr) were determined. Sample data were analyzed using principal component analysis, correlation analysis, water quality index, the Nemerow comprehensive pollution index, hazard quotient, and hazard index. The results showed that the Sidi River was slightly alkaline. The farther the river water samples were from the tailings reservoir, the lower were the concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Mn, Fe, As, and Sr in the river water. Principal component and correlation analyses showed that heavy metals in the Sidi River karst basin mainly came from mine discharge(55.42%), carbonate weathering dissolution(21.41%), and human activities(14.72%). Eighty-two percent of the samples in the river and all the samples in the groundwater were excellent water. The Nemerow comprehensive pollution index in the river was 4.12 with strong pollution. All the hazard indices were below 1, and Pb, Zn, As, Cd, and Cr were potentially threatening metals in the Sidi River karst basin. The concentration of heavy metals changed significantly after entering the karst conduit, indicating that the unique properties of the karst aquifer affected the spatial variation of the heavy metal concentration. The results of this study can provide data reference for water resource prevention and human health protection in the Sidi River karst basin and similar karst basins.

[Spatial Distribution, Source Analysis, and Health Risk Assessment of Metal Elements in Karst Water in Southeastern Chongqing].

Dispersed karst water is an important water supply source, or even the only water supply source, for some districts and counties in Chongqing City. It is particularly necessary to understand the distribution characteristics of metal elements in karst water and the health risks exposed. In this study, the scattered karst water in the southeastern part of Chongqing was taken as the main research object, and the concentrations of Al, Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr, Cd, Ni, Mn, As, and Hg in 42 groups of karst spring water samples were determined. The spatial distribution of metal elements with a high detection rate was revealed using the ordinary kriging interpolation method, and the spatial distribution characteristics, sources, and health risks of metal elements were analyzed using multivariate statistical methods and health risk models. The results showed that the quality of dispersed karst water in southeastern Chongqing was generally good, and the spatial scale variability in the occurrence of metal elements in karst water was strong, especially for Ni and As. The sources of Cu, Pb, As, Zn, and Cr were mainly affected by the regional geological background; Al and Mn were mainly affected by human industrial, agricultural, and mining activities; and Ni was affected by both the natural background and human activities. The total health risk of exposure through the drinking route was higher than that of the skin infiltration route, which was the main exposure route of the human body. The total health risk of children exposed through the drinking route was higher than that of adults, and the total health risk of adults exposed through the skin infiltration route was higher than that of children. It is worth noting that Cr was the determinant of total health risk. From the perspective of drinking water safety, local residents need to pay certain attention to water quality when drinking distributed karst groundwater, in order to reduce the health risk of the population.

Leaching characteristics and pollution risk assessment of potentially harmful elements from coal gangue exposed to weathering for different periods of time.

To explore the leaching behavior and potential degree of pollution that can result from the backfilling of goafs with different types of coal gangue (CG), fresh CG from the Hongqi Coal Mine goaf and surface CG (weathered for 1 year) were selected as the research objects in this study. A series of leaching experiments were carried out using the Ordovician limestone karst waters of the mining areas as the soaking solution. A comparative study on the dissolution characteristics of Fe3+, Mn2+, and SO42- and on the traditional water quality parameters of the two types of CG was conducted. The results showed that the soaked, weathered CG displayed a higher ion dissolution value than fresh CG. The ratio of each ion was as follows: Fe3+ was 1, Mn2+ was 2.86 ~ 68.18, and SO42- was 1.34 ~ 2.09. Over time, the ion concentration of water samples that initially contained high ion concentration values showed a decreasing trend after CG was soaked in these waters, but the values were still in the range of high ion release concentrations. The pH and oxidation‒reduction potential (ORP) values of the leachate of both CG types indicated that the leachates were weakly alkaline and weakly oxidizing, and the overall change in total dissolved solids (TDS) was small and consistent with the SO42- trend. SO42- in the leachate of the weathered CG showed a more significant correlation with the pH and TDS of the soaking solution, and it was the major pollutant. According to the geoaccumulation index evaluation, weathered CG had higher pollution potential than fresh CG. Fe3+ presented a slight and moderate risk for contamination.

Spatiotemporal variability and control factors of NO3- in a polluted karst water system of an agricultural wetland in South China.

Nitrate (NO3-) pollution in karst water is an important environmental issue in intensive agricultural regions worldwide. The integrated understanding of the spatiotemporal variability and control factors of NO3- pollution in karst water is imperative for controlling the diffuse pollution caused by agricultural activities. In this study, 49 water samples were collected from surface water (SW) and groundwater (GW) in the Huixian karst wetland (HKW) and analyzed using hydrogeochemical and isotopic data (δ18O-NO3-, δ15N-NO3- and δ13CDIC) in combination with a Bayesian mixing model to investigate the spatiotemporal distribution and control factors in NO3--polluted karst water. The results showed that approximately 40.82% of the karst water samples exceeded the natural threshold value of 3 mg/L for NO3--N, and 32.14% of the GW samples exceeded the permissible limit for drinking water established by WHO (10 mg/L as NO3--N), indicating that high levels of NO3- were mainly found in GW samples from the agricultural core area, especially in the dry season. The NH4+-synthetic fertilizer (NHF) and soil organic nitrogen (SON) were the dominant factors controlling pollution sources in the HKW, accounting for 36.13% ± 4.66% and 28.68% ± 4.75% of the karst GW NO3- concentration, respectively. However, the seasonal differences in NO3- pollution sources were not significant in GW. Microbial nitrification was the main process affecting the NO3- levels in GW, whereas the occurrence of denitrification did not significantly affect NO3- concentration in the HKW due to the relatively low rate. Moreover, the HNO3 produced from NH4+ via microbial nitrification facilitated carbonate weathering, thereby controlling NO3- enrichment in karst GW. Our results suggest that NHF should be controlled to prevent further GW pollution in the HKW. Our study also provides a scientific basis for understanding the factors controlling the NO3- concentrations in karst water systems.

Dissolved Heavy Metal Pollution and Assessment of a Karst Basin around a Mine, Southwest China.

Karst water quality is one of the most important environmental issues in karst areas. The study's purpose was to investigate dissolved heavy metal pollution and health risk assessment in karst water basins around mines. River water and groundwater samples were analyzed by principal component analysis, correlation analysis, water quality index, hazard quotient, and hazard index. Median concentrations of dissolved heavy metals in the Sidi River were similar to the world average with a slightly alkaline characteristic. The concentrations of most dissolved heavy metals in river water were higher than those in groundwater. The concentrations of Zn, Pb, and Cd around the mine exceeded the limits of drinking water indicators. The poor water quality samples with high water quality index values were distributed around the mine. Lead (Pb), Zn, As, Cd, and Cr were potentially threatening metals in the study area. The pollution level of dissolved heavy metals in the Sidi River was at a medium level compared with other rivers worldwide. Principal component analysis and correlation analysis showed that Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Mn, Fe, As, and Sr mainly came from mine drainage; Ca2+, Mg2+, and Cr mainly came from the contribution of carbonate rocks; Na+ and K+ were related to local human agricultural activities. The concentrations of dissolved heavy metals in groundwater were affected by karst aquifers. The results of this study can provide a data reference for water resources prevention and human health protection in the Sidi River's karst basin and similar karst basins.

Numerical simulation and protection of the dynamic change of Jinan karst spring based on coupling of seepage and conduit flow.

The objective of this study was to predict the dynamic change in the spring water level more precisely, to provide timely solutions for karst spring protection. Using the Jinan spring region as a case study, this study established a numerical model of a karst groundwater system, and optimized the mining layout. The calculated maximum extraction volume following the optimized exploitation layout was 0.69 m3/s, in order to ensure the continuous flow of spring water in the median water year. A coupled karst groundwater numerical model with dual structure was developed using the MODFLOW-Conduit Flow Process (CFP), which simulates and then precisely predicts changes in the water level of the karst springs. Here, the plane extension direction of the karst conduit was determined by a tracer test and correlation analysis of the spring water levels and groundwater levels of the observation wells. Meanwhile, the vertical location of the karst conduit was determined by layered monitoring of the groundwater temperature and conductivity. Based on this, a coupling model of seepage and conduit flow was created to simulate the dynamic change in the spring water level, and the dual-media coupling model improved the simulation accuracy of the spring water level. The current study confirmed that, compared to the porous media seepage model, the dual-media coupling model can simulate the groundwater level dynamic change more accurately in a heterogeneous karst aquifer in northern China. The coupling model was used to analyze the effect of supplementation and optimize mining, to ensure that spring water continues to flow during the dry season while supplying the mining demand.

Effect of dissolved organic matter and its fractions on disinfection by-products formation upon karst surface water.

In this study, disinfection by-products (DBP) formation from dissolved organic matter (DOM) and its fractions, including both hydrophilic and hydrophobic components, were investigated at a typical karst surface water. The subsequent DBP formation potential was evaluated by deducing chemical characteristics of DOM fractions and representative algal organic matter (Chlorella sp. AOM) under the influence of divalent ions (Ca2+ and Mg2+) via spectra analysis. Both terrigenous and autochthonous DOM performed as critical DBP precursors, and DBP formation patterns were tightly correlated to organic matter chemical variations. DBP formation was significantly higher in drought period compared to that in wet period (P < 0.05). Particularly, trichloromethane (TCM) and dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) showed distinct formation patterns compared to the scenarios in non-karst water. For DOM fractions, hydrophobic components showed higher DBP formation compared to hydrophilic counterparts, hydrophilic neutral enriched more reactive organic nitrogen for N-DBPs production. It was preferable to enrich humic-like substances after Ca2+ and Mg2+complexation in Chlorella sp. AOM, TCM formation increased whereas DCAN production remained unchanged in the presence of divalent ions. This study innovatively provided a linkage between chemical characteristics of DOM and understanding of DBP formation in karst surface water.

Application of the hydrochemistry, stable isotopes and MixSIAR model to identify nitrate sources and transformations in surface water and groundwater of an intensive agricultural karst wetland in Guilin, China.

Karst water as the vital water supply source is generally suffered from NO3- contamination in intensive agricultural areas worldwide. Identifying NO3- sources and transformations is the key for understanding nitrogen pathways, and also for effectively controlling diffuse NO3- pollution. In this study, chemical variables and stable isotopes (δ2H-H2O, δ18O-H2O, δ15N-NO3- and δ18O-NO3-) were measured in 10 surface water (SW) samples and 13 groundwater (GW) samples collected from the Huixian karst wetland, with the application of a Bayesian stable isotope mixing model (MixSIAR) to identified NO3- sources and biogeochemical transformations. The results showed that the NO3- concentrations ranged from the below detection limit to 117 mg/L, with 30.8% of GW samples obtained from the north central part of the study area exceeding the maximum permissible limit for drinking water, and posing significant non-carcinogenic health risks for native people through drinking water pathway. Moreover, based on characteristics of the hydrochemistry and stable isotopes, different biogeochemical fates were evaluated in SW and GW: nitrification process was a dominant factor in GW, as a result of high NO3- levels, and this microbial process was unlikely occurred in SW associated with relatively anaerobic condition and low NO3- levels; however, the denitrification might not be a main process of degradation NO3- levels throughout the study area. The MixSIAR outputs revealed that the long-term application of synthetic NH4+ fertilizer (36.6%) and soil organic nitrogen (28.0%) were the main contributors to NO3- pollution, followed by synthetic NO3- fertilizer (16.8%) and domestic sewage and manure (15.1%), whereas NO3- in precipitation (3.44%) played a less important role. Additionally, NO3- concentration was significantly influenced by agricultural activities rather than NO3- source's contribution between SW and GW. This work suggests that synthetic NH4+ fertilizer should be the primary target for control to prevent further NO3- pollution of the karst groundwater.

Identification and Estimation of Solute Storage and Release in Karst Water Systems, South China.

Solute storage and release in groundwater are key processes in solute transport for groundwater remediation and protection. In karst areas where concentrated recharge conditions exist, pollution incidents can easily occur in springs that are hydraulically connected to densely inhabited karst depressions. The intrinsic heterogeneity common in karst media makes modeling solute transport very difficult with great uncertainty. Meanwhile, it is noteworthy that solute storage and release within subsurface conduits and fissures exhibit strong controlling function on pollutant attenuation during underground floods. Consequently, in this paper, we identified and estimated the solute storage and release processes in karst water systems under concentrated recharge conditions. The methodology uses the advection-dispersion method and field tracer tests to characterize solute transport in different flow paths. Two solute transport pathways were established (i.e., linear pathway (direct transport through karst conduits) and dynamic pathway (flow through fissures)). Advection-dispersion equations were used to fit the breakthrough curves in conduit flow, while the volume of solute storage in fissures were calculated by segmenting the best fitting curves from the total breakthrough curves. The results show that, greater recharge flow or stronger dynamic conditions leads to lower solute storage rate, with the storage rate values less than 10% at high water level conditions. In addition, longer residence time was recorded for solute exchange between conduits and fissures at the low water level condition, thereby contributing to a higher solute storage rate of 26% in the dynamic pathway.

Chronic urban hotspots and agricultural drainage drive microbial pollution of karst water resources in rural developing regions.

Contamination of surface and groundwater systems with human and animal faecal matter leads to exposure of reliant populations to disease causing micro-organisms. This exposure route remains a major cause of infection and mortality in developing countries, particularly rural regions. To meet the UN's sustainable development goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, we need to identify the key controls on faecal contamination across relevant settings. We conducted a high-resolution spatial study of E. coli concentration in catchment drainage waters over 6 months in a mixed land-use catchment in the extensive karst region extending across impoverished southwest China. Using a mixed effects modelling framework, we tested how land-use, karst hydrology, antecedent meteorological conditions, agricultural cycles, hydrochemistry, and position in the catchment system affected E. coli concentrations. Land-use was the best predictor of faecal contamination levels. Sites in urban areas were chronically highly contaminated, but water draining from agricultural land was also consistently contaminated and there was a catchment wide pulse of higher E. coli concentrations, turbidity, and discharge during paddy field drainage. E. coli concentration increased with increasing antecedent rainfall across all land-use types and compartments of the karst hydrological system (underground and surface waters), but decreased with increasing pH. This is interpreted to be a result of processes affecting pH, such as water residence time, rather than the direct effect of pH on E. coli survival. Improved containment and treatment of human waste in areas of higher population density would likely reduce contamination hotspots, and further research is needed to identify the nature and distribution of sources in agricultural land.

Multiple isotope geochemistry and hydrochemical monitoring of karst water in a rapidly urbanized region.

Karst water is an important resource for drinking water supply. To determine the impacts of urbanization on karst water quality, we performed a case study in the rapidly urbanized Guiyang-Anshun region, Guizhou province, southwestern China. We interpret data from regional reconnaissance and long-term monitoring related to major ion chemistry, stable isotopes (Sr, C, S (for SO42-), and N and O (for NO3-)), remote sensing, and socio-economic development. We identify groundwater SO42- and NO3- sources by combined use of δ34S and Ca2+/Na+ molar ratio and δ15N and NO3-/Na+ ratio, respectively. We find that carbonate, sulfide, silicate, and gypsum weathering, anthropogenic inputs, and hydrodynamic conditions account for karst water composition and its seasonal variations. Atmospheric N and S deposition, nitrification of soil N, and sulfide oxidation control the background levels of groundwater NO3- and SO42-. The elevated concentrations of NO3- and SO42- at residential sites in rural and urban areas mainly arise from domestic sewage. Nitrification and fertilizer application are major reasons for the high levels of NO3- in regional groundwater systems. Vegetated/forested land area decreases as constructed land area increases, which results in declining biogenic CO2 production and inputs into the aquifer. Although the local government has attempted to control SO2 emissions, substantial increases in fossil fuel utilization and fertilizer consumption as well as population growth may have increased atmospheric HNO3 deposition and induced increasingly severe contamination of groundwater with NO3- and SO42-. Our results improve the understanding of urbanization impacts on water quality and are important for water resource management in karst regions.

Hydrochemistry and coal mining activity induced karst water quality degradation in the Niangziguan karst water system, China.

Hydrogeochemical analysis, statistical analysis, and geochemical modeling were employed to evaluate the impacts of coal mining activities on karst water chemistry in Niangziguan spring catchment, one of the largest karst springs in Northern China. Significant water quality deterioration was observed along the flow path, evidenced from the increasing sulfate, nitrate, and TDS content in karst water. Karst water samples are Ca-Mg-HCO3 type in the recharge areas, Ca-Mg-HCO3-SO4 type in the coal mining areas, and Ca-Mg-SO4-HCO3/HCO3-SO4 type in the rural areas and discharge areas. A four-factor principal component analysis (PCA) model is conducted which explains over 82.9% of the total variation. Factor 1, which explained the largest portion (45.33%) of the total variance, reveals that coal mining activities and natural water-rock interaction as the primary factors controlling karst water quality. Anthropogenic effects were recognized as the secondary factor with high positive loadings for NO3 (-) and Cl(-) in the model. The other two factors are co-precipitation removal of trace elements and silicate mineral dissolution, which explained 20.96% of the total variance. A two-end mixing modeling was proposed to estimate the percentage of coal wastewater giving on karst water chemistry, based on the groundwater sulfate chemistry constrains rather than sulfur isotopes. Uncertainty of sulfur isotope sources led to an overestimation of coal mining water contribution. According to the results of the modeling, the contribution of coal mining waste on karst water chemistry was quantified to be from 27.05 to 1.11% which is ca. three times lower than the values suggested using a sulfur isotope method.