Evaluation of Cookies Enriched with Osmodehydrated Wild Garlic from Nutritional and Sensory Aspects.

In the present study, the nutritional and sensory properties of spelt cookies without wild garlic, cookies with fresh wild garlic, cookies with osmodehydrated wild garlic in sugar beet molasses, and cookies with osmodehydrated wild garlic in an aqueous solution of sucrose and salt were evaluated and compared. The tested cookie samples were characterized in terms of total antioxidative activity, the total content of phenols, flavonoids, and thiosulfates, the presence of dominant phenols, the content of betaine and dietary fiber, antioxidant activity after in vitro digestion, and sensory attributes for appearance, taste, smell, and texture. The results proved that the addition of wild garlic leaves osmodehydrated in molasses provided the cookies with the best nutritional and bioactive properties: 1.75 times higher total phenols content, 2.4 times higher total flavonoids content, 1.52 times higher total thiosulfates content, and 1.56 times higher betaine content, and a total quality increase of 54% compared to the control cookies. The cookies enriched with osmodehydrated wild garlic in molasses were rated as pleasant and acceptable, but also more complex compared to other cookies. The production of this nutritionally and sensory-improved cookie would contribute to expanding the assortment of flour confectionery products, especially for consumers who care about health and nutrition.

Development and Characterization of New Plant-Based Ice Cream Assortments Using Oleogels as Fat Source.

The objective of this study was to develop candelilla wax oleogels with hemp seed oil and olive oil and use them as a fat source in the development of new plant-based ice cream assortments. Oleogels were structured with 3 and 9% candelilla wax and characterized by oil-binding capacity, peroxide value and color parameters. The oil-binding capacities of 9% wax oleogels were significantly higher than those of 3% wax oleogels, while peroxide values of oleogels decrease with increasing wax dosage. All oleogel samples are yellow-green due to the pigments present in the oils and candelilla wax. Physicochemical (pH, titratable acidity, soluble solids, fat, protein) and rheological (viscosity and viscoelastic modulus) parameters of plant-based ice cream mixes with oleogels were determined. Also, sensory attributes and texture parameters were investigated. The results showed that titratable acidity and fat content of plant-based ice cream samples increased with increasing wax percentage, while pH, soluble solids and protein values are more influenced by the type of plant milk used. The plant-based ice cream sample with spelt milk, hemp oil and 9% candelilla wax received the highest overall acceptability score. The hardness of the plant-based ice cream samples increased as the percentage of candelilla wax added increased.

Nutritional composition, in vitro carbohydrates digestibility, textural and sensory characteristics of bread as affected by ancient wheat flour type and sourdough fermentation time.

This study aimed to investigate the effect of ancient wheat flour type and sourdough fermentation time on the nutritional, textural and sensorial properties of fiber-rich sourdough bread. The proximate composition, minerals, carbohydrates, organic acids, volatiles, total phenolic content, simulated gastrointestinal digestion, textural and sensorial characteristics were investigated. Bread's minerals, total phenolics, cellulose contents and radical scavenging activity variations clearly indicates an increasing trend with sourdoughs fermentation time. Compared to maltose and glucose, fructose was predominant in all bread samples. Sourdough fermentation time and wheat type had non-significant influence on fructose content from digested fraction. Excepting emmer bread, fermentation time increased in vitro digestibility values for tested samples. The crumb textural parameters (hardness, gumminess, chewiness, cohesiveness and springiness index) were positively influenced by fermentation time. The specific clustering of the analysed characteristics distinguished emmer bread from other samples in terms of volatile compounds, textural and overall acceptability, being preferred by panellists.

Genomic insights into the origin and evolution of spelt (Triticum spelta L.) as a valuable gene pool for modern wheat breeding.

Spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) is an important wheat subspecies mainly cultivated in Europe before the 20th century that has contributed to modern wheat breeding as a valuable genetic resource. However, relatively little is known about the origins and maintenance of spelt populations. Here, using resequencing data from 416 worldwide wheat accessions, including representative spelt wheat, we demonstrate that European spelt emerged when primitive hexaploid wheat spread to the west and hybridized with pre-settled domesticated emmer, the putative maternal donor. Genomic introgression regions from domesticated emmer confer spelt's primitive morphological characters used for species taxonomy, such as tenacious glumes and later flowering. We propose a haplotype-based "spelt index" to identify spelt-type wheat varieties and to quantify utilization of the spelt gene pool in modern wheat cultivars. This study reveals the genetic basis for the establishment of the spelt wheat subspecies in a specific ecological niche and the vital role of the spelt gene pool as a unique germplasm resource in modern wheat breeding.

Two randomized crossover multicenter studies investigating gastrointestinal symptoms after bread consumption in individuals with noncoeliac wheat sensitivity: do wheat species and fermentation type matter?

BACKGROUND: Many individuals reduce their bread intake because they believe wheat causes their gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms. Different wheat species and processing methods may affect these responses. OBJECTIVES: We investigated the effects of 6 different bread types (prepared from 3 wheat species and 2 fermentation conditions) on GI symptoms in individuals with self-reported noncoeliac wheat sensitivity (NCWS). METHODS: Two parallel, randomized, double-blind, crossover, multicenter studies were conducted. NCWS individuals, in whom coeliac disease and wheat allergy were ruled out, received 5 slices of yeast fermented (YF) (study A, n = 20) or sourdough fermented (SF) (study B, n = 20) bread made of bread wheat, spelt, or emmer in a randomized order on 3 separate test days. Each test day was preceded by a run-in period of 3 d of a symptom-free diet and separated by a wash-out period of ≥7 d. GI symptoms were evaluated by change in symptom score (test day minus average of the 3-d run-in period) on a 0-100 mm visual analogue scale (ΔVAS), comparing medians using the Friedman test. Responders were defined as an increase in ΔVAS of ≥15 mm for overall GI symptoms, abdominal discomfort, abdominal pain, bloating, and/or flatulence. RESULTS: GI symptoms did not differ significantly between breads of different grains [YF bread wheat median ΔVAS 10.4 mm (IQR 0.0-17.8 mm), spelt 4.9 mm (-7.6 to 9.4 mm), emmer 11.0 mm (0.0-21.3 mm), P = 0.267; SF bread wheat 10.5 mm (-3.1 to 31.5 mm), spelt 11.3 mm (0.0-15.3 mm), emmer 4.0 mm (-2.9 to 9.3 mm), P = 0.144]. The number of responders was also comparable for both YF (6 to wheat, 5 to spelt, and 7 to emmer, P = 0.761) and SF breads (9 to wheat, 7 to spelt, and 8 to emmer, P = 0.761). CONCLUSIONS: The majority of NCWS individuals experienced some GI symptoms for ≥1 of the breads, but on a group level, no differences were found between different grains for either YF or SF breads. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY: clinicaltrials.gov, NCT04084470 (https://classic. CLINICALTRIALS: gov/ct2/show/NCT04084470).

No correlation between amylase/trypsin-inhibitor content and amylase inhibitory activity in hexaploid and tetraploid wheat species.

Wheat amylase/trypsin-inhibitors (ATI) are known triggers for wheat-related disorders. The aims of our study were to determine (1) the inhibitory activity against different α-amylases, (2) the content of albumins and globulins (ALGL) and total ATI and (3) to correlate these parameters in wholegrain flour of hexaploid, tetraploid and diploid wheat species. The amount of ATI within the ALGL fraction varied from 0.8% in einkorn to 20% in spelt. ATI contents measured with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) revealed similar contents (1.2-4.2 mg/g) compared to the results determined by LC-MS/MS (0.2-5.2 mg/g) for all wheat species except einkorn. No correlation was found between ALGL content and inhibitory activity. In general, hexaploid cultivars of spelt and common wheat had the highest inhibitory activities, showing values between 897 and 3564 AIU/g against human salivary α-amylase. Tetraploid wheat species durum and emmer had lower activities (170-1461 AIU/g), although a few emmer cultivars showed similar activities at one location. In einkorn, no inhibitory activity was found. No correlation was observed between the ATI content and the inhibitory activity against the used α-amylases, highlighting that it is very important to look at the parameters separately.

Evaluation of the Allelic Variations in Vernalisation (VRN1) and Photoperiod (PPD1) Genes and Genetic Diversity in a Spanish Spelt Wheat Collection.

Allelic variation within genes controlling the vernalisation requirement (VRN1) and photoperiod response (PPD1) determines the adaptation of wheat to different environmental growing conditions as well as influences other traits related to grain yield. This study aimed to screen a Spanish spelt wheat collection using gene-specific molecular markers for VRN-A1, VRN-B1, VRN-D1, and PPD-D1 loci and to phenotype for heading date (HD) in both field and greenhouse experiments under a long photoperiod and without vernalisation. Fifty-five spelt genotypes (91.7%) exhibited a spring growth habit, and all of them carried at least one dominant VRN1 allele, whereas five (8.3%) genotypes had a winter growth habit, and they carried the triple recessive allele combination. The Vrn-D1s was the most frequent allele in the studied set of spelt accessions, and it was found in combination with both the dominant Vrn-A1b and/or Vrn-B1a alleles in 88.3% of the spelt accessions tested. All spelt accessions carried the photoperiod-sensitive Ppd-D1b allele, which may explain the late heading of spelt germplasm compared to the commercial spring bread wheat Setenil used as a control. The least significant difference test showed significant differences between allelic combinations, the earliest accessions being those carrying two or three dominant alleles, followed by the one-gene combinations. In addition, the genetic diversity was evaluated through capillary electrophoresis using 15 wheat simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Most markers had high levels of polymorphism, producing 95 different alleles which ranged between 53 and 279 bp in size. Based on the polymorphic information content values obtained (from 0.51 to 0.97), 12 out of the 15 SSRs were catalogued as informative markers (values > 0.5). According to the dendrogram generated, the spelt accessions clustered as a separate group from the commercial bread wheat Setenil. Knowledge of VRN1 and PPD1 alleles, heading time, and genetic variability using SSR markers is valuable for spelt wheat breeding programs.

Strategies to Formulate Value-Added Pastry Products from Composite Flours Based on Spelt Flour and Grape Pomace Powder.

In recent years, sustainability has promoted new research to develop reformulation strategies for value-added food products by exploiting grape pomace. Grape pomace powder (GP) was used to substitute spelt flour (SF) at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% to obtain three types of fortified pastry products: biscuits and cakes involving a chemical leavening agent, and rolls leavened by yeast. Proximate composition, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoids content (TFC), 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) along with physical characteristics and sensory analysis of the enriched products were considered. The retention rate of the functional attributes of formulations in response to baking was also evaluated. Significant improvements in TPC, TFC and both antioxidant tests were achieved in the fortified products by the incremental incorporation of GP. With a substitution of 25% SF by GP, the following increases were recorded in biscuits, cakes and rolls over the control samples: 7.198-, 7.733- and 8.117-fold for TPC; 8.414-, 7.000- and 8.661-fold for TFC; 16.334-, 17.915- and 18.659-fold for FRAP and 16.384-, 17.908- and 18.775-fold for DPPH. The retention rates of TPC, TFC, FRAP and DPPH relative to the corresponding dough were 41-63%, 37-65%, 48-70% and 45-70%. The formulas leavened by yeast revealed higher functionality than those produced with a chemical raising agent. With the increase in GP, the elasticity and porosity gradually decreased for cakes and rolls, while the spread ratio of biscuits increased. Regarding sensory evaluation, all formulations with incorporated GP up to 10% were rated at an extremely pleasant acceptability level. The solutions derived from this study have great practical applicability for the development of new pastry formulations with improved functionality from GP valorisation.

Contribution of Insoluble Bound Antioxidants from Germinated Seeds of Wheat and Spelt to the Nutritional Value of White Bread.

This research aimed to study the dynamic changes in phenolic antioxidants between the germ and the rest of the germinated seed of wheat and spelt and to evaluate the whole grain flour from germinated seeds as a functional supplement. Longer germination resulted in higher TPC, DPPH, and ABTS values when considering the entire germinated seed, while the optimal germination time was not consistent when considering the germ and the remaining germinated seed separately. While in the germinated seed (without germ) the majority of TPC was determined to be bound phenolics (up to 92%), the extractable form dominated in the germ (up to 69%). The most abundant phenolic antioxidants in germinated wheat and spelt seeds, trans-ferulic acid, cis-ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid, increased significantly with germination. Only breads with 5% germinated spelt or wheat flour were suitable for the production of a food product, showing higher extractable TPC, antioxidant activity, individual phenolic acids, and improved specific volume, and were preferred because of their appearance, aroma, and color. The PCA biplot showed that the addition of 15% and 30% germinated flours had the greatest positive impact on phenolic properties, while breads with the addition of 5% germinated flour had the greatest positive impact on specific volume and color.

Identification and Quantification of Selected Benzoxazinoids and Phenolics in Germinated Spelt (Triticum spelta).

In this study, we investigated the effects of germination on the secondary metabolite composition in spelt grains. Germination significantly increased the content of various metabolites in free and bound forms. Benzoxazinoids were the most important compounds in the free fraction of the 96 h germinated grains (MBOA content as the predominant compound was 277.61 ± 15.29 µg/g DW). The majority of phenolic acids were present in the bound fraction, with trans-ferulic acid as the main component, reaching 753.27 ± 95.87 µg/g DW. The often neglected cis-isomers of phenolic acids accounted for about 20% of the total phenolic acids. High levels of apigenin di-C-glycosides were found in spelt grains, and the schaftoside content was most affected by germination, increasing threefold. The accumulation of secondary metabolites significantly increased the antioxidant activity of germinated spelt. According to the results of this study, the content of most bioactive compounds was highest in spelt grains after 96 h of germination. These data suggest that germinated spelt could potentially be valuable for the production of functional foods.

The Effects of Two Organic Soil Amendments, Biochar and Insect Frass Fertilizer, on Shoot Growth of Cereal Seedlings.

To mitigate the environmental harm associated with high-input agriculture, arable farmers are increasingly required to maintain productivity while reducing inputs of synthetic fertilizers. Thus, a diverse range of organic products are now being investigated in terms of their value as alternative fertilizers and soil amendments. This study used a series of glasshouse trials to investigate the effects of an insect frass-based fertilizer derived from black soldier fly waste [HexaFrass™, Meath, Ireland] and biochar on four cereals grown in Ireland (barley, oats, triticale, spelt) as animal feed and for human consumption. In general, the application of low quantities of HexaFrass™ resulted in significant increases in shoot growth in all four cereal species, along with increased foliage concentrations of NPK and SPAD levels (a measure of chlorophyll density). These positive effects of HexaFrass™ on shoot growth were observed, however, only when a potting mix with low basal nutrients was used. Additionally, excessive application of HexaFrass™ resulted in reduced shoot growth and, in some cases, seedling mortality. The application of finely ground or crushed biochar produced from four different feedstocks (Ulex, Juncus, woodchip, olive stone) had no consistent positive or negative effects on cereal shoot growth. Overall, our results indicate that insect frass-based fertilizers have good potential in low-input, organic, or regenerative cereal production systems. Based on our results, biochar appears to have less potential as a plant growth promoting product, but could be used as a tool for lowering whole-farm carbon budgets by providing a simplistic means of storing carbon in farm soils.

Compositional Traits of Grains and Groats of Barley, Oat and Spelt Grown at Organic and Conventional Fields.

Barley, oats, or spelt consumed as minimally processed whole grains provide several health benefits, especially when grown under organic field management conditions. Therefore, the effects of organic and conventional farming on the compositional traits (protein, fibre, fat, and ash) of barley, oat, and spelt grains and groats were compared using three winter barley varieties ('Anemone', 'BC Favorit', and 'Sandra'), two spring oat varieties ('Max' and 'Noni'), and three spelt varieties ('Ebners Rotkorn', 'Murska bela', and 'Ostro'). Groats were produced from harvested grains by a combination of threshing, winnowing, and brushing/polishing. Multitrait analysis showed significant differences between species, field management practices, and fractions, with clear compositional differences between organic and conventional spelt. Barley and oat groats had a higher thousand kernel weight (TKW) and ß-glucan, but lower crude fibre, fat, and ash contents than the grains. The composition of the grains of the different species differed significantly for more traits (TKW, fibre, fat, ash, and ß-glucan) than that of the groats (TKW and fat), while field management only affected the fibre content of the groats and the TKW, ash, and ß-glucan contents of the grains. The TKW, protein, and fat contents of the different species differed significantly under both conventional and organic growing conditions, while the TKW and fibre contents of grains and groats differed under both systems. The caloric value of the final products of barley, oats, and spelt groats ranged from 334-358 kcal/100 g. This information will be useful for not only the processing industry, but also for breeders and farmers, and last, but not least, for consumers.

Metabolic Profile of Einkorn, Spelt, Emmer Ancient Wheat Species Sourdough Fermented with Strain of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum ATCC 8014.

The continuous development of bakery products as well as the increased demands from consumers transform ancient grains into alternatives with high nutritional potential for modern wheat species. The present study, therefore, follows the changes that occur in the sourdough obtained from these vegetable matrices fermented by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum ATCC 8014 during a 24 h. period. The samples were analyzed in terms of cell growth dynamics, carbohydrate content, crude cellulose, minerals, organic acids, volatile compounds, and rheological properties. The results revealed significant microbial growth in all samples, with an average value of 9 log cfu/g but also a high accumulation of organic acids with the increase in the fermentation period. Lactic acid content ranged from 2.89 to 6.65 mg/g, while acetic acid recorded values between 0.51 and 1.1 mg/g. Regarding the content of simple sugars, maltose was converted into glucose, and fructose was used as an electron acceptor or carbon source. Cellulose content decreased as a result of the solubilization of soluble fibers into insoluble fibers under enzymatic action, with percentages of 3.8 to 9.5%. All sourdough samples had a high content of minerals; the highest of which-Ca (246 mg/kg), Zn (36 mg/kg), Mn (46 mg/kg), and Fe (19 mg/kg)-were recorded in the einkorn sourdough.

Comparative Compositions of Grain of Bread Wheat, Emmer and Spelt Grown with Different Levels of Nitrogen Fertilisation.

Five cultivars of bread wheat and spelt and three of emmer were grown in replicate randomised field trials on two sites for two years with 100 and 200 kg nitrogen fertiliser per hectare, reflecting low input and intensive farming systems. Wholemeal flours were analysed for components that are suggested to contribute to a healthy diet. The ranges of all components overlapped between the three cereal types, reflecting the effects of both genotype and environment. Nevertheless, statistically significant differences in the contents of some components were observed. Notably, emmer and spelt had higher contents of protein, iron, zinc, magnesium, choline and glycine betaine, but also of asparagine (the precursor of acrylamide) and raffinose. By contrast, bread wheat had higher contents of the two major types of fibre, arabinoxylan (AX) and ß-glucan, than emmer and a higher AX content than spelt. Although such differences in composition may be suggested to result in effects on metabolic parameters and health when studied in isolation, the final effects will depend on the quantity consumed and the composition of the overall diet.

Geographic tracing of cereals from South Tyrol (Italy) and neighboring regions via 87Sr/86Sr isotope analysis.

The protection and promotion of agricultural niche products can be supported by the application of analytical techniques able to link food to its territory. This study aimed at exploring the possibility to discriminate between cereal samples from South Tyrol (Italy) and the neighboring regions (Trentino, East Tyrol, and North Tyrol) by their 87Sr/86Sr ratios. Soil and grain (different species) samples were collected from around 100 fields in two sampling campaigns. No difference in the 87Sr/86Sr ratios among different cereal species (p < 0.05) was found when cultivated on the same field. A high correlation between 87Sr/86Sr ratios in cereal grains and soil samples was found, with results in line with the local geology characteristics. Cereal samples from South Tyrol showed relatively high 87Sr/86Sr values (0.716 - 0.721, mean 50%), separating them from the other regions investigated and many cereal production areas of global importance.

Effect of Green Food Processing Technology on the Enzyme Activity in Spelt Flour.

In this research, a new approach to enzyme inactivation in flour was presented by supercritical technology, considered a sustainable technology with lower energy consumption compared to other technologies that use ultra-high temperature processing. Total protein concentration and the activity of enzymes α-amylase, lipase, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, and protease were determined in flour pre-treated with scCO2. During the study, it was observed that the activity of enzymes such as lipase and polyphenol oxidase, was significantly reduced under certain conditions of scCO2 treatment, while the enzymes α-amylase and protease show better stability. In particular, polyphenol oxidase was effectively inactivated below the 60% of preserved activity at 200 bar and 3 h, whereas α-amylase under the same conditions retained its activity. Additionally, the moisture content of the scCO2-treated spelt flour was reduced by 5%, and the fat content was reduced by 58%, while the quality of scCO2-treated flour was maintained. In this regard, the sustainable scCO2 process could be a valuable tool for controlling the enzymatic activity of spelt flour since the use of scCO2 technology has a positive effect on the quality of flour, which was verified by the baking performance of spelt flour with the baked spelt bread as an indicator of quality.

The Influence of Farming Systems, Genotype and Their Interaction on Bioactive Compound, Protein and Starch Content of Bread and Spelt Wheat.

An increase in the production and consumption of spelt products can be associated with positive effects on human health, which are attributed to bioactive compounds present in the grain. The basic success of spelt wheat in organic farming might be explained by the fact that spelt wheat belongs to the group of hulled wheat where the presence of a husk protects the seed from abiotic and biotic stress factors, thus demanding less chemical protection. The goal of this study was to investigate the variations in the bioactive compound (alkylresorcinol, arabinoxylan, ß-glucan), protein, starch and fructan content of bread and spelt wheat under different farming systems (conventional and organic). The results showed higher protein and alkylresorcinol but lower fructan content in spelt wheat. Organic spelt had significantly higher starch, fiber and alkylresorcinol content but lower ß-glucan and protein content than conventionally grown spelt. The spelt variety 'Oberkulmer-Rotkorn' was characterized by the highest values for the majority of analyzed traits under both farming systems. Overall, the environmental conditions (Hungary and Serbia), farming systems (conventional and organic) and wheat species (bread and spelt) contributed to the variations of the compositional traits in different manners.

Molecular Characterization and SNP-Based Molecular Marker Development of Two Novel High Molecular Weight Glutenin Genes from Triticum spelta L.

Spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L., 2n=6x=42, AABBDD) is a valuable source of new gene resources for wheat genetic improvement. In the present study, two novel high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS) 1Ax2.1* at Glu-A1 and 1By19* at Glu-B1 from German spelt wheat were identified. The encoding genes of both subunits were amplified and cloned by allele-specific PCR (AS-PCR), and the complete sequences of open reading frames (ORF) were obtained. 1Ax2.1* with 2478 bp and 1By19* with 2163 bp encoded 824 and 720 amino acid residues, respectively. Molecular characterization showed that both subunits had a longer repetitive region, and high percentage of α-helices at the N- and C-termini, which are beneficial for forming superior gluten macropolymers. Protein modelling by AlphaFold2 revealed similar three-diamensional (3D) structure features of 1Ax2.1* with two x-type superior quality subunits (1Ax1 and 1Ax2*) and 1By19* with four y-type superior quality subunits (1By16, 1By9, 1By8 and 1By18). Four cysteine residues in the three x-type subunits (1Ax2.1*, 1Ax1 and 1Ax2*) and the cysteine in intermediate repeat region of y-type subunits were not expected to participate in intramolecular disulfide bond formation, but these cysteines might form intermolecular disulfide bonds with other glutenins and gliadins to enhance gluten macropolymer formation. The SNP-based molecular markers for 1Ax2.1* and 1By19* genes were developed, which were verified in different F2 populations and recombination inbred lines (RILs) derived from crossing between spelt wheat and bread wheat cultivars. This study provides data on new glutenin genes and molecular markers for wheat quality improvement.

Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion of Bioprocessed Spelt Seeds: Bioaccessibility and Bioactivity of Phenolics.

The goal of this research was to evaluate the impact of different bioprocessing techniques on improved bioaccessibility of phenolics from spelt seeds. Despite the negative influence of gastrointestinal digestion, fermentation of germinated seeds significantly increased the bioaccessibility of total phenolics and their antioxidant activity compared to digested raw seeds. Enzymatic treated fermented seeds showed the highest relative bioaccessibility of p-coumaric and trans-ferulic acids, while their absolute contents were significantly higher in "germinated + fermented" seeds. Our research suggests that pretreatment of spelt seeds with hydrolytic enzymes improves access of fermenting microorganisms to structural elements, resulting in an increased content of extractable and bound trans-ferulic acid. Significantly higher biostability of phenolics was observed in raw seeds. Some major quality changes in the composition of extracts were observed under simulated in vitro digestion, since antioxidants of the same extract showed a different relative decrease in DPPH• and ABTS•+ scavenging activities compared to the raw seeds or their corresponding undigested counterparts. It is therefore important to increase the content of extractable antioxidants in seeds by bioprocessing, since they are strongly diminished during digestion.

Impact of the Cultivation System and Plant Cultivar on Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi of Spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. Spelta L.) in a Short-Term Monoculture.

Native communities of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) constitute a natural biofertilization, biocontrol, and bioprotection factor for most agricultural crops, including cereals. The present study investigated the native AMF population in cultivated spelt, i.e., a cereal that has not been analyzed in this respect to date. In particular, the aim of the study was to determine the number of spores and the degree of AMF root colonization in two spelt cultivars (Franckenkorn and Badengold) from a 3-year monoculture grown in two different cultivation systems: conventional tillage and no-tillage systems. The study showed considerable accumulation of AMF spores in the soil (on average 1325 in 100 g of air-dry soil), with a wide range of their numbers, and not a very high degree of endomycorrhizal colonization (on average from 3.0% to 31%). The intensity of AMF growth in the subsequent cultivation years gradually increased and depended on the cultivation system as well as the growth stage and cultivar of the spelt. It was found that both analyzed AMF growth indices in the no-tillage system were positively correlated with each other. Moreover, their values were higher in the no-tillage system than in the conventional system, with statistical significance only for the number of spores. This was mainly observed in the variant with the Franckenkorn cultivar. The effect of the growing season was evident in both cultivation systems and spelt cultivars. It was reflected by intensification of sporulation and mycorrhization of spelt roots by AMF in summer (maturation stage) compared with the spring period (flowering stage).