An Examination of the Sport Commitment Model for Athletes With Physical Disabilities.

Sport commitment describes a psychological attachment to a sport that influences one's desire or resolve to continue involvement in it. Studying antecedents believed to influence long term commitment to sport among athletes with a disability will help ensure that participants gain those psychosocial and health outcomes from sport participation that benefit quality of life. Our purposes in this study were: (i) to examine the Sport Commitment Model (SCM) in terms of the magnitude of the contribution of antecedent factors (i.e., enjoyment, personal investment, involvement opportunities, social constraints, involvement alternatives) to sport commitment of athletes with disabilities; and (ii) to examine the model structure (i.e., original SCM, mediation, and direct/indirect model) that best reflects an understanding of the sport commitment antecedents for these athletes. A total of 157 adult athletes (M age = 34.87, SD = 11.78) with physical disabilities from both team and individual sports across the United States, Europe, and Asia completed the Sport Commitment Questionnaire. Data analyses indicated that sport involvement opportunities, followed by personal investment, were the strongest predictors of these athletes' sport commitments (R2 = .66). Based on the principle of parsimony, the original structural equation model (χ2 (215) = 384.95; RMSEA = .07; CFI = .95; SRMR = .06) was deemed better for understanding the mechanism of sport commitment than the mediation or direct/indirect models. We address implications of applying the SCM to athletes with disabilities, and we offer suggestions for future research.

The influence of sport motivation on college students' subjective exercise experience: a mediation model with moderation.

Background: The degree to which an individual experiences a positive emotional state after exercise is a measurement of how much enjoyment sports bring to the individual. This can also be seen as the individual's essential motivation for engaging in sports, and an indirect means of improving the individual's physical health. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the factors that affect college students' subjective exercise experience and their effecting mechanism, thereby providing a basis for promoting college students' positive emotional experience after exercise. Methods: A questionnaire survey on 600 college students was conducted to examine the mediating effect of sport-confidence on the relationship between college students' sport motivation and their subjective exercise experience, and to investigate whether this process is moderated by the feelings of inadequacy. Results: The indirect effect of sport-confidence was significant (95% CI [0.133, 0.276]), and the index of moderated mediation Bootstrap 95% CI [0.003, 0.017] did not contain 0. Conclusion: The results indicated that: (1) sport-confidence had a partial mediating effect between college students' sport motivation and their subjective exercise experience; (2) the mediating effect of sport-confidence was moderated by the feelings of inadequacy, and the feelings of inadequacy moderated the latter half path of the mediating process of sport motivation - sport-confidence - subjective exercise experience. Therefore, the influence of college students' sport motivation on their subjective exercise experience is a moderated mediating model.

Sports motivation, anxiety and diet in education students / Motivación deportiva, ansiedad y dieta en estudiantes de educación

Motivational development with regards to sport plays a fundamental role in sport performance, however, anxiety and dietary patterns also play a key role. In consideration of the above, the present research aimed to develop an explanatory model of the motivational climate towards sport and its relationship with the Mediterranean diet and anxiety. This structural model was then examined according to gender using multi-group analysis. To this end, a cross-sectional, descriptive and comparative study was carried out with 556 university students. The instruments used were a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ-2), the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) and the Predimed questionnaire. Finally, outcomes revealed that the female gender had a negative relationship with adherence to a healthy dietary pattern, whilst males showed better adherence to the Mediterranean diet and higher levels of anxiety (AU)

La motivación juega un papel fundamental en la práctica del ejercicio físico, sin embargo, la ansiedad y el patrón dietético también juegan un rol clave, por tanto,la presente investigación refleja los objetivos de desarrollar un modelo explicativo del clima motivacional hacia el deporte y su relación con la dieta mediterránea y la ansiedad y contrastar el modelo estructural mediante un análisis multigrupo en función del sexo. Se ha realizado un estudio descriptivo comparativo de corte transversal con 556 estudiantes universitarios. Los instrumentos utilizados han sido un cuestionario sociodemográfico, el Cuestionario de Clima Motivacional Percibido en el Deporte (PMCSQ-2), el Inventario de Ansiedad de Beck (BAI) y el cuestionario Predimed. Finalmente, los resultados revelan que el sexo femenino tiene una relación negativa con la adherencia positiva a un patrón dietético saludable, mientras que el masculino muestra una mejor adherencia hacia la dieta mediterránea y mayores niveles de ansiedad (AU)

The effects of a physical exercise program in Chinese kidney transplant recipients: a prospective randomised controlled trial.

Background: Kidney transplant has become the preferred therapy for end-stage renal disease. However, kidney transplant recipients (KTRs) still face several challenges, such as physical inactivity. The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of a nurse-led physical exercise program in Chinese KTRs. Methods: A total of 106 participants were enrolled from the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University between July 2021 and June 2022 and randomly assigned to the control or intervention groups. Participants in the control group were provided with routine nursing care and participants in the intervention group received a nurse-led rigorous physical exercise program that was divided into two stages: the pre-discharge stage and the post-discharge stage. The pre-discharge stage included the non-ambulatory and ambulatory stages. The Chinese traditional exercise Baduanjin was incorporated into the physical exercise during the ambulatory stage. The post-discharge stage continued the same exercise as the ambulatory stage at home. After 3 months of intervention, both groups received the same follow-up for 3 months. The primary and secondary outcomes of all participants were collected. The data were analysed with repeated measures analysis of variance to examine the effectiveness of the intervention. Results: Compared with the control group, the intervention group had less fatigue and more motivation to be active in primary outcomes. Moreover, patients in the intervention group had a higher phase angle, a longer 6-minute walk distance, more 30-second chair stand times and decreased anxiety and depression levels in secondary outcomes. No adverse events were observed during the intervention. There were no significant differences in all dimensions of the quality-of-life questionnaire between the intervention and the control group. Conclusion: Chinese KTRs could benefit from the nurse-led physical exercise program post-operatively. Trial registration: ChiCTR2100048755.

Effectiveness of a Judo Intervention Programme on the Psychosocial Area in Secondary School Education Students.

Currently, many combat sports are pedagogically conceived as uneducational and unreliable for the development of young people. The present research aims to investigate the influence of a Judo intervention programme on the motivational climate towards sport, aggressive behaviour, emotional intelligence, and self-concept in secondary school students and to establish the relationships between them. This objective was broken down into (a) developing an explanatory model of the variables mentioned above and (b) testing the model equations through a multi-group analysis in terms of pre-test and post-test. The present study conducted a pre-post-test quasi-experimental design with a single experimental group. The sample consisted of a total of 139 adolescents (12.67 ± 1.066), 50.4% of whom were male (n = 70) and 49.6% female (n = 69). The results show that the intervention decreased all types of aggression and increased levels of emotional intelligence. An increase in social, physical and academic self-concept and decreases in the family and emotional areas were also observed. Finally, for the motivational climate, a tendency towards the ego climate to the detriment of the task climate was observed. It is concluded that the Judo intervention programme is effective in decreasing aggressive behaviour and effective in increasing levels of emotional intelligence and self-concept.

Study of the relationship between motivation towards physical activityand its relationship with anxiety and self-concept in the educational setting.A systematic review / Estudio de la relación entre la motivación hacia la práctica deactividad física y su relación con la ansiedad y el autoconcepto. Unarevisión sistemática

Motivation is one of the most studied elements in sport psychology due to its great potential to explain the attitude towards sport practice. Therefore, the present systematic review aims to analyse the effects of sport-oriented motivation on physical activity, anxiety and self-concept. The Web of Science and SCOPUS databases were used to select articles published between 2012 and 2022. The criteria established by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement were followed for the elaboration of the systematic review, with the final analysis sample comprising a total of 19 articles. Finally, the analysis of the data reveals that developing sport motivation from extrinsic or intrinsic values can help to decrease or increase anxiety levels. In addition, it is also observed that motivation developed through extrinsic values plays a key role in the abandonment of physical activity, due to the frustration and worsening of the mental image generated at a professional level when the proposed objectives are not achieved.(AU)

Actualmente, la motivación es uno de los elementos más estudiados en la psicología del deporte debido a su gran potencial para explicar la actitud hacia la práctica deportiva. Es por ello que la presente revisión sistemática presenta el objetivo de analizar los efectos de la motivación orientada hacia el deporte sobre la práctica de actividad física, la ansiedad y el autoconcepto. Para ello se han utilizado las bases de datos de Web of Science y SCOPUS eligiéndose los artículos publicados entre los años 2012 y 2022. Para la elaboración de la revisión sistemática se han seguido los criterios establecidos por la declaración de los Elementos de Información Preferidos para Revisiones Sistemáticas y Meta-Análisis (PRISMA), quedando la muestra final de análisis compuesta por un total de 19 artículos. Finalmente, el análisis de los datos revela que desarrollar una motivación deportiva desde valores extrínsecos o intrínsecos puede ayudar a disminuir o a aumentar los niveles de ansiedad. Además, también se observa como la motivación desarrollada a través de valores extrínsecos supone jugar un papel clave en el abandono de la práctica de actividad físico deportiva, debido a la frustración y empeoramiento de la imagen mental generada a nivel profesional cuando no se consiguen los objetivos propuestos.(AU)

Sources of Sport Satisfaction and Perceived Self-Efficacy Among Youth in a Competitive Environment.

Young people's sources of satisfaction in sport are an important indicator of their long-term sport participation. Contextual factors and an individual's internal dispositions act synergistically to determine a positive experience. We studied sources of sport satisfaction and perceived self-efficacy of 1,151 male and female youth athletes (M age = 14.72, SD = 1.56 years) in Brazil who were engaged in school state level competition. The participants responded to questionnaires on their sport satisfaction and perceived self-efficacy. We considered sex, training time, and last game results as independent variables in accessing participant differences in perceived satisfaction. We observed an increasing trend toward more significant satisfaction as sport experience increased. Perceived self-efficacy was a moderator for young participants' self-reported positive experience in sports. Thus, in our offer of evidence on sources of satisfaction in sport and perceived self-efficacy among youth in competition, we found the extent of the sport experience and self-efficacy to be important factors in the developmental pathway.

An Explanatory Model of Sport Motivation, Physical Self-Concept and Anxiety as a Function of the Degree of Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet in Future Physical Education Teachers.

The present research has the objectives of establishing the relationship between motivational climate towards sport, anxiety, and physical self-concept, and identifying the existing relationships between anxiety, motivational climate, and physical self-concept, broken down into (a) developing an explanatory model of the motivational climate towards sport and its relationship with anxiety and physical self-concept, and (b) contrasting the structural model by means of a multi-group analysis according to the degree of adherence to the Mediterranean diet. A quantitative, comparative, non-experimental (ex post facto), cross-sectional study was carried out with a total sample of 556 participants (23.06 ± 6.23). The instruments used were an ad hoc questionnaire and the Spanish versions of the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire 2, Beck Anxiety Inventory, Self-Concept Form-5, and the PREDIMED questionnaire. The data reveal that participants who show high adherence to the Mediterranean diet attain higher scores on physical self-concept and anxiety, as well as ego-climate. As a conclusion, it is observed that participants who show a high adherence to the Mediterranean diet show higher scores in physical self-concept and anxiety, as well as in all the variables that make up the ego-climate.

Sport Motivation from the Perspective of Health, Institutional Embeddedness and Academic Persistence among Higher Educational Students.

Regular physical activity from an early age is an important part of a healthy life because if we incorporate exercise early into our lifestyle, we are more likely to maintain our commitment to sport into adulthood and even throughout our lives. In our research, we used the PERSIST 2019 database, which contains data from students at higher education institutions in Hungary, Slovakia, Romania, Ukraine, and Serbia. We used factor analysis to isolate four sports motivation factors (intrinsic, introjected, extrinsic, and amotivation). Factors influencing the different types were measured using linear regression analysis, involving the variables in four models. The results show that the effects of the sociodemographic variables are significant for gender, country, and mother's job, especially in terms of intrinsic, introjected, and extrinsic motivation. The role of coping is salient for health awareness factors, with a positive effect on intrinsic motivation and a negative effect on the other types. The impacts of quality of education and support are typically negative, while the positive effect of satisfaction with infrastructure is noteworthy. The effect of persistence in sport on intrinsic and introjected motivation is positive. Frequency of training increases intrinsic motivation, while practical sport embeddedness generates extrinsic motivation. In terms of relationships, a mainly teacher-oriented network within the institution typically has a negative effect on intrinsic motivation, while peer relationships outside the institution typically increase intrinsic and extrinsic sport motivation. Academic persistence has a positive effect on intrinsic motivation and a negative effect on introjected motivation. Our research highlights the complexity of factors influencing sport motivation and the role of coping, which typically remains strong when relationship-related variables are included. In addition, we must emphasise the dominant role of relationship network patterns, which may even reduce commitment to sport.

Sport motivation, adherence to the mediterranean diet and digital leisure. An explanatory model for gender in education students / Motivación deportiva, adherencia a la dieta mediterránea y ocio digital. Un modelo explicativo en estudiantes de educación en función del sexo

The motivation developed towards sport plays a key role in the adherence to a healthy dietary pattern, however, it also plays an important role towards digital entertainment. Taking this into account, the present study aims to develop an explanatory model of the incidence of sport motivation on adherence to a healthy dietary pattern and adherence to video games and to contrast the structural model by means of a multi-group analysis according to gender. To this end, a cross-sectional descriptive comparative study was carried out with 1112 participants (25.09±6.22). The instruments used were a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Predimed questionnaire, the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ-2) and the Video Game Related Experiences Questionnaire (CERV). Finally, the results reveal that the female sex obtains a negative relationship between sport motivation and digital leisure, while the male sex reflects a negative relationship between task climate and adherence to the Mediterranean diet. (AU)

La motivación desarrollada hacia el deporte juega un papel clave en la adherencia a un patrón dietético saludable, sin embargo, también juega un papel importante hacia el ocio digital. El presente estudio pretende desarrollar un modelo explicativo de la incidencia de la motivación hacia el deporte en la adherencia a un patrón dietético saludable y la adicción a los videojuegos y contrastar el modelo estructural mediante un análisis multigrupo en función del sexo de los participantes. Para ello se realizó un estudio descriptivo comparativo transversal con 1112 participantes (25,09±6,22). Los instrumentos utilizados fueron un cuestionario sociodemográfico, el cuestionario Predimed, el Cuestionario de Clima Motivacional Percibido en el Deporte (PMCSQ-2) y el Cuestionario de Experiencias Relacionadas con los Videojuegos (CERV). Finalmente, los resultados revelan que el sexo femenino obtiene una relación negativa entre la motivación deportiva y el ocio digital, mientras que el sexo masculino refleja una relación negativa entre el clima de tarea y la adherencia a la dieta mediterránea. (AU)

Dynamic Interactive Model of Sport Motivation.

Motivation variables in 11 motivational instruments of 357 Slovenian male athletes (168 elite and 189 young athletes from age 12-14) in nine different sport disciplines (basketball, football, handball, water polo, ice hockey, ski jumping, alpine skiing, sport climbing, and judo) were obtained. Different concepts of motivation were researched, such as achievement motivation, incentive motivation, participation motivation, goal orientation, satisfaction and enjoyment in sport, self-efficacy, effort, and ability attributions. The most popular framework for motivation in sport lately has been social cognitive perspective. The aim of this study was to form a dynamic interactive model of sport motivation. We tried to upgrade different models of motivation to one unique meta model of sport motivation, which would explain possible behaviours and motivation in sport situations. Different statistic methods were used to define differences among young and elite athletes and between athletes in group and individual sports. The results show important differences among those groups and suggest that specific sport discipline also has a specific footprint inside motivation. Factor analysis and discriminant analysis were used to explore sport motivation space. The results also suggest that it is possible to define some main determinants of sport motivation that can be connected to previous models of sport motivation.

The Role of Athlete Competitiveness in High School Sport Specialization in the United States.

Background: Sport specialization has been associated with increased injury and negative psychosocial effects on young athletes. With the continuing trend toward specialization, studies have begun to examine what motivates this decision (eg, building a skill, getting a scholarship). No study has directly assessed the personal characteristics underlying these stated reasons. Purpose/Hypothesis: This study examined the role of athlete competitiveness (enjoyment of competition and competitive contentiousness) as a characteristic associated with propensity to specialize in the United States. We hypothesized that, at the high school level, athletes would be more likely to engage in sport specialization owing to enjoyment of competition versus competitive contentiousness. Study Design: Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: We conducted an online survey of 975 high school athletes in the United States who were recruited via the Dynata research panel. Measures included a previously published sport specialization categorization (low, medium, high) and the 2 dimensions of the Revised Competitiveness Index (enjoyment of competition and competitive contentiousness). Also collected were athlete characteristics, sports played by the athletes, level of competition, and whether they planned to play sports in college. Analytical methods employed included cross-tabulations, multinomial logit, and ordinary least squares regression. Results: Overall, 22.4% of the athletes reported a high, 34.8% reported a medium, and 42.9% reported a small level of specialization. No differences in the distribution of sport specialization by sex or age were observed; however, athletes who definitely planned to play in college were significantly more likely to have a high level of specialization (P < .001). Enjoyment of competition was associated with greater specialization (beta = .196; P < .001), whereas competitive contentiousness was associated with lower levels of specialization (beta = -.299; P < .001). These findings were robust to all 3 different analytical methods we employed. Conclusion: Study findings indicated that, while athlete competitiveness is associated with sport specialization, the nature of that competitiveness determined the association. Being an argumentative contrarian may predispose athletes to lower levels of sport specialization, whereas enjoying competition may encourage higher levels of specialization.

Using the Behavioural Regulation in an Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-2) in Central and Eastern Europe: Evidence of Reliability, Sociocultural Background, and the Effect on Sports Activity.

The factors influencing sports motivation create a complex system, integrating internal drivers, such as the love of sport and the need for competence, and external segments, such as the environment, institutions, or the media. In our research, we examined the sports motivation of students studying in higher educational institutions in five countries (Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, and Ukraine) using the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-2). This research aims to explore the socioeconomic and institutional factors influencing students' sports motivation and the effect of sociocultural, demographical, motivational, and societal factors on the frequency of participating in sports. Based on factor analysis, instead of the original five factors, three factors could be detected in the sample: intrinsic and identified motivation, introjected motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. Based on the results, higher social status facilitates intrinsic motivation, while lower socioeconomic status facilitates extrinsic motivation and amotivation. The strongest effect is exerted by individual variables, of which intrinsic and identified motivation support regular physical activity as a significant factor among students in all countries. This can also be seen in the frequency of sporting activities, as the highest frequency of sports activity was detected among people with high intrinsic motivation.

Psychological Status During and After the Preparation of a Long-distance Triathlon Event in Amateur Athletes.

Preparation for an endurance event among amateur athletes requires a major commitment on their part. Knowing amateur athletes' psychological characteristics during a training period should be a priority for coaches and athletes. The aim of our longitudinal study was to characterize the psychological profile of amateur athletes over a training period of six months prior to and after a long-distance triathlon. Thirty-two amateur athletes (13 females; 19 males; 1.5±1.3 years of experience) were recruited for this observational study. All participants (39±9.9 years old; weighs 73±12.9 kg; measure 172±10.2 cm) underwent a physical fitness assessment pre- and post 6-months of training, a monthly psychological questionnaire battery assessing mood, positive and negative affect, passion and motivation and, for some participants (n=5), an interview post event. Positive emotions increased until the sixth month, from 38.1±22.0 to 54.3±7.2 (Z=3.49, p<0.001, r=0.80). Participants were more harmonious (29.0±3.0) than obsessive (13.0±1.0) with their triathlon's passion (Z=4.91, p<0.001, r=0.85). Participants felt a high level of intrinsic motivation (15.9±1.76) and a low level of external motivation (4.9±1.08) about their triathlon training (p<0.05). The vigor score is the only sub scale that significantly changed from the 1st to the 6th month of training, and ranged between 21.4±10.6 and 28.1±4.1 (Z=2.0, p=0.046, r=0.46). This longitudinal observational study is the first to have explored athletes' psychological and emotional parameters over a training period of six months prior to a long-distance triathlon event and one month after. Thus, specific interventions and mental training can be structured around these important milestones.

A motivação esportiva entre escolares da educação urbana e educação do campo / Sports motivation among students of urban education and rural education

O presente estudo teve como objetivo identificar e comparar os níveis motivacionais para a prática esportiva de escolares de instituições rurais e urbanas. Ao todo participaram do estudo 848 estudantes, sendo 424 da escola do campo e 424 da escola urbana, com idades compreendidas entre 10 a 19 anos de ambos os sexos. Para a avaliação do quadro motivacional esportivo foi utilizado o instrumento de pesquisa "Sport Motivation Scale" (SMS), que visa mensurar e avaliar componentes intrínsecos e extrínsecos da motivação. Para a análise estatística foram utilizados os testes de Mann Whitney para comparação de grupos e o teste qui quadrado para a associação das variáveis. Após a interpretação dos dados, os resultados indicaram que os alunos das zonas rurais de ensino encontravam-se mais motivados que os estudantes do perímetro urbano, sobretudo, quando a comparação se deu entre escolares do sexo feminino e em etapas mais avançadas de escolaridade. Em consonância a esses dados, quando realizado um teste de associação entre o tipo de escola e a classificação motivacional, constatou-se que a maioria dos discentes das escolas rurais estavam classificados em um nível de motivação considerado alto. Em suma, a partir deste estudo, verificamos que o ambiente onde os escolares estudam ou residem, em alguma medida, pode influenciar na motivação esportiva. Embora não esteja claro as razões pelas quais os escolares do campo se evidenciaram mais motivados, acreditamos que no contexto rural existe uma limitação quanto à diversidade de atividades, o que acaba contribuindo para uma maior atenção para as práticas esportivas. Como na cidade o jovem tem a sua disposição um leque maior de espaços de convivência social, é provável que o esporte passe a ser dividido com outras ocupações e, por isso, ocorra um maior arrefecimento motivacional no espaço urbano quando comparado com o meio rural.(AU)

The present study aimed to identify and compare the motivational levels for the sport practice of students from rural and urban schools. The study included 848 students, being 424 of the rural school and 424 of the urban school, aged between 10 and 19 years of both sexes. For the evaluation of the sport motivational framework, we used the research instrument "Sport Motivation Scale" (SMS) to measure and evaluate the intrinsic and extrinsic components of motivation. For the statistical analysis was performed Mann Whitney tests for comparison of groups and chi-square test for the association of variables. After the data were interpreted, the results indicated that students in rural areas were more motivated than students in the urban perimeter, especially when the comparison was made between female students and at more advanced levels of schooling. In line with these data, when a test of association between the type of school and the motivational classification was carried out, it was found that the most of rural schoolchildren were classified as having a high motivation level. In short, from this study, we verified that the environment where the students study or reside can influence sport motivation. Although it is not clear why rural schoolchildren were more motivated, we believe that in the rural context there is a limitation on the diversity of activities, which contributes to greater attention to sport practices. As in the city the youth has at its disposal a wider range of social coexistence, it is probably that the sport will be divided with other occupations, which contributes to the reduction of the sports motivation when compared to rural students.(AU)

Perceived Benefits for Mental and Physical Health and Barriers to Horseback Riding Participation. The Analysis among Professional and Amateur Athletes.

The aim of this study was to investigate perceived benefits for mental and physical health and barriers to horseback riding participation among professional and amateur athletes by gender. The empirical study of 2651 professional and amateur horseback riders was conducted during the last edition of Cavaliada competitions (held in Poznan in December 2019)-one of the biggest and most important horseback riding events in Europe. A diagnostic survey method was used in the study. In the questionnaire a division of benefits and barriers according to the EBBS (Exercise Benefits/Barriers Scale) was used. The results are presented by means of frequency distributions for individual items. The verification of hypotheses about the differences between the analyzed groups was conducted using the U-Mann Whitney test with a correction of tied ranks. For the compared groups the mean rank values were calculated. Research results showed that respondents rated the positive impact of equestrianism on mental health higher than on physical health. Among the barriers, the most frequently mentioned aspects were not related to the internal motivation of the respondents, but to external factors-money, time and distance of sports facilities. Men rated the social and psychological benefits higher, while women rated the positive impact of equestrianism on physicality. Professionals rated more highly a number of aspects related to positive effects on the body, while amateurs claimed that were more often not supported by loved ones. This is important research from the point of view of horseback riding promotion. Understanding the horseback riding benefits and barriers are needed, as such knowledge can be used to encourage horseback riding. Perceived benefits and barriers to horseback riding have so far been rarely studied by researchers.

Examining the Motivation and Perceived Benefits of Pickleball Participation in Older Adults.

Pickleball, a paddle sport that combines aspects of tennis, badminton, and table tennis, is one of the fastest growing sports in America. The sport is especially popular with older adults as it provides a means for both competition and exercise. Limited research is available on the motivation and perceived benefits of participants in this unique and growing community. A total of 3,012 participants completed a survey instrument that included items from the Sport Motivation Scale, the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, and the Quality and Importance of Recreational Services. Participants reported being more task oriented than ego oriented, suggesting that pickleball may effectively satisfy the need for persons to be engaged in physical activities that allow for the ongoing development of personal mastery. This finding is supported by respondents noting that their primary motivation to participate in pickleball involved mastering difficult training techniques. However, participants cited competition as the top perceived benefit to their participation. This result supports two possible conclusions that motivation and benefit are different and potentially disconnected constructs or that the benefit of competition among this sample of older persons is understood through the lens of personal mastery, whereby the demonstration of that mastery is only possible through competition.

Constituent Year Effect in Masters Sports: An Empirical View on the Historical Development in US Masters Swimming.

A participation-related constituent year effect, has been found to exist in masters sports in that relatively younger masters athletes (i.e., those in the first or second year of a 5-year age category) participate in competitions significantly more often than relatively older masters athletes (i.e., those in the fourth or fifth year of a 5-year age category). The main purpose of this study was to examine if the participation-related constituent year effect in US masters swimming always existed or if it has developed over time at different historical time periods. Using archived data, participation in the US Masters national short course swimming championships at each of the historical time periods in years 1972, 1982, 1992, 2002, 2012 and 2016 were examined as a function of an individual's constituent year within any 5-year age category and across gender and age. The results indicated the existence of a participation-related constituent year effect for each of the six time periods. In particular, a participation-related constituent year effect seemed to have existed from the inception of organized masters swimming competitions in the US but has developed more strongly over the years especially for males and older-aged masters swimmers. Generally, the tendency to participate at National swimming competitions during the first year of an age category was significantly more pronounced, whereas the tendency of participating during the fifth year of an age category was lower. Findings suggest that the 5-year age categories may not provide an equal competitive opportunity especially for relatively older athletes as for those who are relatively younger, but may encourage more strategic periodized training and participation.

Does Emotional Intelligence Predict Athletes' Motivation to Participate in Sports?

The relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and successful athletic performance has been previously recognized, but there remains a need to investigate how EI impacts athletes' sports motivation. This cross-sectional study investigated how different EI dimensions related to athletes' motivation among 239 adult basketball players (129 females) aged 18-34 years. Our research participants completed questionnaires that included the self-reported Emotional Intelligence Scale and Sport Motivation Scale II. We found significant correlations between total EI and intrinsic, integrated, identified, and introjected regulation. Higher EI was negatively related to athletes' amotivation. More specifically, the self-reported abilities to perceive emotion and manage others' emotions were significantly related to intrinsic, integrated, and identified regulation, and only managing one's own emotions negatively related to athletes' amotivation.

The Constituent Year Effect: Relative Age Disparities in Australian Masters Track and Field Athletic Participation.

The constituent year effect, a source of relative age disparities, in masters sport has been demonstrated mainly amongst North American samples. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine whether a participation-related constituent year effect exists among athletes (n = 6492) competing in Australian Masters Athletics competitions between 2000 and 2014. The results indicated that a participation-related constituent year effect was observed as the likelihood of participating was significantly higher for masters athletes in their first and second constituent year of any five-year age category (p < 0.0001) and was lower when they were in the fourth or fifth constituent year. The results also indicated this effect is influenced by gender and age. Specifically, the effect was significant for both male (p < 0.0001) and female (p < 0.001) masters athletes; as well during the third, sixth, seventh, and eighth + decades of life (all ps < 0.001). These data demonstrate that despite masters sport being an avenue for promotion of participation and overall health, there is potential for improving how competitive organizational strategies are implemented given the recurring intermittent patterns of participation associated with five-year age brackets which are likely to compromise benefits.