Contributions to the development of an anatomical terminology in Spanish from South America.

The development of a standard anatomical language in Spanish dates back to the early stages of medicine, and its significance lies in the necessity for a common vocabulary to describe the structures of the human body. Anatomists and morphologists have been striving to achieve this goal since the late nineteenth century when the first Anatomical Nomenclature was created in Basel in 1895. Over the years, various versions of the International Anatomical Terminology have been published in Spanish, following the guidelines of the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA). These versions have been produced in partnership with the Spanish Anatomical Society and have aimed to adjust the terms to the Spanish language and linguistic rules. The Ibero-Latin American Symposia on Anatomical, Histological, and Embryological Terminology (SILAT) have embraced the naming of morphological structures, keeping in mind the Latin and Greek roots, while respecting the translations accepted by the linguistic rules of the official languages. These symposia stick to the principles of universality, precision in structure description, and consistency in terminology. Despite more than a century of progress in anatomical terminology, there is a need for frequent revisions and adjustments to anatomical terms, particularly when translating them into various languages and because of the high number of international publications related to anatomy. A shared anatomical language is essential for the study and application of anatomy across various medical practices and in undergraduate education. Finally, the establishment of anatomical terminology in Spanish represents a long history of efforts to create a universal and precise language in this field. Despite advancements, the revision and adaptation of anatomical terms remain a continuous challenge to keep up with scientific progress and ensure effective communication in the field of anatomy.

Towards a Terminologia Anatomica Humana.

Unfortunately, the long-awaited revision of the official anatomical nomenclature, the Terminologia Anatomica 2 (TA2), which was issued in 2019 and after a referendum among the Member Societies officially approved by the General Assembly of the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists in 2020, is built on a new version of the Regular Anatomical Terminology (RAT) rules. This breaks with many traditional views of terminology. These changes in the Terminologia Anatomica of 1998 (TA98) met great resistance within many European Anatomical Societies and their members are not willing to use terms following the RAT rules. European anatomy teachers and scientists using traditional Latin in their teaching, textbooks and atlases will keep using the TA98. The German Anatomical Society (Anatomische Gesellschaft) recently announced the usage of the TA2023AG in curricular anatomical media such as textbooks and atlases, based on the TA98 and the Terminologia Neuroanatomica (TNA). We are preparing a more extensive improvement of the TA98, called Terminologia Anatomica Humana (TAH). This project is fully based on the noncontroversial terms of TA98, incorporating the recent digital version (2022) of the TNA from 2017. Further, it is completed with many new terms, including those in TA2, along with their definitions and relevant references, clinical terms, and correcting inconsistencies in the TA98. The TAH is still in process, but many chapters are already freely available at the IFAA Website in Fribourg ( https://ifaa.unifr.ch ) as is the digital version of the TNA.

Unificación Término Fossa y Fovea en Terminologia Anatomica / Unification of the Term Fossa and Fovea in Anatomical Terminology

Los términos fossa y fovea se encuentran en Terminologia Anatomica, sin embargo, no existe una diferencia clara entre ambos términos. Por este motivo, el objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la coherencia entre la relación léxica, morfológica y etimológica de los términos fossa y fovea con su utilización en Terminologia Anatomica. Los términos fossa y fovea fueron consultados en Terminologia Anatomica (Federative International Programme for Anatomical Terminology, 2019) y en Terminologia Anatomica Internacional (Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology, 2001). Posteriormente se realizó la búsqueda de ambos términos en diccionarios latín-español e inglés-latín. Finalmente fueron consultados los términos fossa y fovea en el Diccionario de la Real Academia Española y en el Diccionario panhispánico de términos médicos de la Real Academia Nacional de Medicina de España para conocer las definiciones en el área médica. La búsqueda reportó que el término "fosa" proviene del latín fossa, que significa "excavación, foso, fosa; hoyo, agujero". Por su parte "fóvea" proviene del latín fovea que significa"hoyo pequeño". Por lo tanto, la diferencia de fossa y fovea está determinada por su tamaño según sus definiciones. Sin embargo, en Terminologia Anatomica se han descrito estructuras con el diminutivo de fossa y fovea lo que complejiza la diferenciación de los términos según su tamaño. Además, la falta de unificación en la nomenclatura entre fossa, fovea y sus diminutivos, genera una gran confusión e incoherencias en las traducciones del latín al inglés y al español en Terminologia Anatomica que merman la precisión de la nomenclatura. Por lo tanto se propone la unificación de los términos fossa y fovea en base al tamaño de la depresión anatómica y clarificar su traducción al inglés y español.

SUMMARY: The terms fossa and fovea are found in Terminologia Anatomica, however, there is no clear difference between both terms. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the coherence between the lexical, morphological and etymological relationship of the term's fossa and fovea with their use in Terminologia Anatomica. The terms fossa and fovea were consulted in Terminologia Anatomica (Federative International Programme for Anatomical Terminology, 2019) and in International Anatomical Terminology (Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology, 2001). Subsequently, a search for both terms was carried out in Latin-Spanish and English-Latin dictionaries. Finally, the terms fossa and fovea were consulted in the Diccionario de la Real Academia Española and in the Diccionario panhispánico de términos médicos de la Real Academia Nacional de Medicina de España to know the definitions in the medical area. The search reported that the term "fossa" comes from the Latin fossa, which means "excavation, ditch, ditch; hole, hole." For its part, "fovea" comes from the Latin fovea, which means "small hole." Therefore, the difference between fossa and fovea is determined by their size according to their definitions. However, in Terminologia Anatomica, structures have been described with the diminutive of fossa and fovea, which makes the differentiation of the terms according to their size more complex. Furthermore, the lack of unification in the nomenclature between fossa, fovea and their diminutives generates great confusion and inconsistencies in the translations from Latin to English and Spanish in Terminologia Anatomica that reduce the precision of the nomenclature. Therefore, we propose the unification of the terms fossa and fovea based on the size of the anatomical depression and clarify their translation into English and Spanish.

Exploring the uncharted: Missing anatomical names in the Terminologia Anatomica.

Effective communication and precise navigation within the intricacies of the human body rely on robust anatomical terminology. Since its creation by the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT), the Terminologia Anatomica (TA 1998) has consistently served as the benchmark in the field. However, the constant advancement of anatomical knowledge requires regular revisions, updates, and enhancements of anatomical nomenclature to accommodate the latest scientific discoveries. The recent adoption of the second edition of Terminologia Anatomica (TA 2019) by the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA) has drawn attention to certain notable omissions. Despite over a century of dedicated work establishing standard anatomical terminology, specific widely recognized gross anatomical structures are still absent from the official listing in the Terminologia Anatomica. There is, however, a consensus that the inclusion of names for trivial or variably present structures should be avoided. Accordingly, this article focuses on a thoughtfully selected group of anatomical structures, which are so important that they are routinely discussed during anatomy courses, despite their exclusion from the official lists of anatomical terms. These basic structures hold fundamental importance for both anatomy education and clinical practice. Consequently, their appropriate nomenclature warrants consideration for inclusion in future editions of TA.

Uso de Términos de Relación y Comparación: Un Análisis de Terminologia Anatomica / Use of Relationship and Comparison Terms: An Analysis of Terminologia Anatomica

El aprendizaje de la anatomía puede resultar dificultoso y poco motivador para el estudiante, debido a su complejo vocabulario. Uno de los desafíos iniciales en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de la anatomía humana es el abordaje de términos generales para la relación y comparación de estructuras anatómicas en el cuerpo humano. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar las definiciones de los términos de "relación y comparación" presentes en libros clásicos de anatomía e incluidos en Terminologia Anatomica, identificando aquellos términos que pueden ocasionar confusión dentro de la enseñanza- aprendizaje de la anatomía humana. Los términos fueron analizados en diferentes textos de anatomía humana, en la Real Academia Nacional de Medicina de España y en Terminologia Anatomica (FIPAT, 2019). Se pudo constatar la existencia de 18 términos de relación y comparación, de los cuales 6 (externo, interno, superficial, profundo, intermedio y medio) pueden resultar confusos dentro del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de anatomía humana. Factores como el uso ambiguo, la falta de definiciones claras, las diferencias entre Terminologia Anatomica y el lenguaje común, y la inconsistencia en diferentes fuentes contribuyen a esta posible confusión. Es necesario abordar estas dificultades a través de una enseñanza precisa de Terminologia Anatomica y su aplicación adecuada.

SUMMARY: Learning anatomy can be difficult and not very motivating for the student due to its complex vocabulary. One of the initial challenges in the teaching- learning process of human anatomy is the approach to general terms for the relationship and comparison of anatomical structures in the human body. The objective of this study was to analyze the definitions of the terms «relation and comparison» present in classic anatomy books and included in Terminologia Anatomica, identifying those terms that can cause confusion in the teaching-learning process of human anatomy. The terms were analyzed in different human anatomy texts, in the Royal National Academy of Medicine of Spain and in Terminologia Anatomica (FIPAT, 2019). It was possible to verify the existence of 18 relationship and comparison terms, of which 6 (external, internal, superficial, deep, intermediate and middle) can be confusing within the teaching-learning process of human anatomy. Factors such as ambiguous usage, lack of clear definitions, differences between Terminologia Anatomica and common language, and inconsistency across different sources contribute to this possible confusion. It is necessary to address these difficulties through a precise teaching of Terminologia Anatomica and its proper application.

El Área del Lenguaje Articulado, Perspectiva Histórica y Denominación Epónima Equívoca: Entre Dax y Broca / Articulated Language Area, Historical Perspective and Erroneous Epomy: Between Dax and Broca

El término epónimo área de Broca corresponde a una región cortical cerebral humana dedicada a la expresión del lenguaje oral y que no siempre se ubica en el giro frontal inferior del lobo frontal en el hemisferio izquierdo. Al estudiar 25 artículos del año 2022 y 25 libros de enseñanza de la neuroanatomía, neurofisiología, neurociencia o áreas asociadas del presente siglo, se estableció y cuantificó la existencia del término área de Broca encontrándose que en los libros había un 96 % de inclusión epónima sobre esta área cortical cerebral y en artículos de revista existía un 100 % del mismo epónimo, además, en ninguno de los libros y artículos se encontró un epónimo diferente. Aunque a lo largo del tiempo, en las ciencias médicas se han usado epónimos para designar estructuras anatómicas como en el caso para tratar de designar el área del cerebro que genera el lenguaje oral, este término no proporciona ninguna información descriptiva ni funcional, lo que equivale a un desatino en la lógica del pensamiento morfológico actual, además que lleva a confusión, pues hace pensar que su descubrimiento inicial fue dado por Broca, equivocando el conocimiento histórico que vincula a Marc Dax como el primero en descubrir esta zona.

SUMMARY: The eponymous Broca's area is a human cerebral cortical region that controls the expression of oral language, and which is not always located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe in the left hemisphere. In a study of 25 articles published in 2022, and 25 teaching books on neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, neuroscience or associated areas, it was found that the term Broca's area was established and quantified. In books there was a 96 % eponymous inclusion of this cerebral cortical area and in journal articles there was 100 % of the same eponym. Furthermore, no other eponyms were found in any of the books and articles. Although over time, eponyms have been used in medical sciences to identify anatomical structures, as in the designation of the area in the brain that controls oral language, this term does not provide any descriptive or functional information. The result is contradictory to current morphological thought and also leads to confusion, erroneously suggesting that the initial discovery was made by Broca, when in fact Marc Dax was the first to discover this area some 30 years earlier.

Osseous variations associated with physiological thinning of the glenoid articular cartilage: an osteological study with CT, MRI and arthroscopic correlations.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between osseous variations of the glenoid fossa and thinning of the overlaying articular cartilage. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In total, 360 dry scapulae, comprising adult, children and fetal specimens, were observed for potential presence of osseous variants inside the glenoid fossa. Subsequently, the appearance of the observed variants was evaluated using CT and MRI (each 300 scans), and in-time arthroscopic findings (20 procedures). New terminology of the observed variants was proposed by an expert panel formed by orthopaedic surgeons, anatomists and radiologists. RESULTS: Tubercle of Assaky was observed in 140 (46.7%) adult scapulae, and an innominate osseous depression was identified in 27 (9.0%) adult scapulae. Upon radiological imaging, the tubercle of Assaky was found in 128 (42.7%) CTs and 118 (39.3%) MRIs, while the depression was identified in 12 (4.0%) CTs and 14 (4.7%) MRIs. Articular cartilage above the osseous variations appeared relatively thinner and in several young individuals was found completely absent. Moreover, the tubercle of Assaky featured an increasing prevalence with aging, while the osseous depression develops in the second decade. Macroscopic articular cartilage thinning was identified in 11 (55.0%) arthroscopies. Consequently, four new terms were invented to describe the presented findings. CONCLUSION: Physiological articular cartilage thinning occurs due to the presence of the intraglenoid tubercle or the glenoid fovea. In teenagers, the cartilage above the glenoid fovea may be naturally absent. Screening for these variations increases the diagnostic accuracy of glenoid defects. In addition, implementing the proposed terminological updates would optimize communication accuracy.

Pertinencia del término humor en terminologia anatomica / Relevance of the term humor in terminologia anatomica

En el periodo del renacimiento se dieron múltiples traducciones del griego al latín. Los traductores latinos que llevaron a cabo dichas traducciones en diferentes ocasiones no captaron la semántica base de las palabras, lo cual condujo a errores o desviaciones en el significado de las mismas. Lo anterior, sentó un precedente para debatir la pertinencia de algunos términos anatómicos latinos vigentes en Terminologia Anatomica, como es el caso del humor acuoso y el humor vítreo. En este sentido, el objetivo del presente estudio fue analizar la etimología del término humor con el fin de evaluar la coherencia entre su relación léxica y morfológica. La palabra latinizada umor deriva del griego χնµóς, que fue empleado en la Antigua Grecia por los médicos Hipócrates y Galeno para hacer referencia de manera específica a los cuatro humores de los cuales se encontraba compuesto el ser humano (sangre, bilis amarilla, bilis negra y flema) en relación con la salud, la enfermedad y el temperamento. Sin embargo, posterior a la traducción, esta palabra paso a denotar a cada uno de los líquidos de un organismo vivo, entre otros significados. Por lo tanto, se concluyó que al llevar a cabo la traducción del término en cuestión no se estimó el significado por el cual el mismo se originó y éste se generalizó de manera errónea. Esto, a su vez genera que no se correlacione la etimología del término con su significado léxico y respectiva relación morfológica.

SUMMARY: During the Renaissance era there were multiple translations from Greek into Latin. The Latin translators who carried out these translations often times did not grasp the basic semantics of words, which in turn led to errors or variations of their meaning. This set a precedent to discuss the relevance of some current Latin anatomical terms in Terminologia Anatomica, such as the aqueous humor and the vitreous humor. In this sense, the objective of this study was to analyze the etymology of the term humor in order to evaluate the coherence between its lexical and morphological relationship. The Latinized word umor derives from the Greek χնµóς, which was used in Ancient Greece by the physicians Hippocrates and Galen, to refer specifically to the four humors of which a human being was composed (blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm) in relation to health, disease and temperament. Following the translation however, and among other meanings, the term was used to indicate each one of the fluids in a living organism. Thus, it was concluded that when executing the translation of the term in question, its original meaning was not considered, and therefore it was inaccurately generalized. This, in turn, resulted in the etymology of the term not being correlated with its lexical meaning and respective morphological relationship.

Articulación temporomandibular ¿disco o menisco articular? / Temporomandibular joint, disc or articular meniscus

Los términos disco y menisco se encuentran en Terminologia Anatomica. Sin embargo, ambos términos son utilizados como sinónimos para referirse al cartílago intraarticular presente en la articulación temporomandibular (ATM). Por este motivo, el objetivo de este estudio es exponer las raíces griegas de los términos disco y menisco para evaluar la coherencia entre su relación léxica y su relación morfológica. Ambos términos fueron consultados en el Programa Federativo Internacional de Terminología Anatómica y en diccionarios de idiomas griego, español e inglés. La búsqueda reportó que el término "disco" deriva del latín discus, y este a su vez del griego δίσκος [dískos] que significa "cuerpo cilíndrico cuya base es muy grande respecto a su altura". Por su parte "menisco" proviene del griego mēnískos μηνίσκος [mḗn μήν gr. μείς 'meis', 'luna creciente' + -iskos gr. Sufijo diminutivo 'pequeño'] que significa "luna creciente pequeña" y se define como "cartílago de forma semilunar y de espesor menguante de la periferia al centro; forma parte de la articulación de la rodilla". Por lo tanto, la definición anatómica de disco articular y menisco está determinada por su morfología según la etimología de la palabra. En la ATM se encuentra un disco articular entre los huesos articulares, según su morfología.

SUMMARY: The terms disc and meniscus are found in Terminologia Anatomica. However, both terms are used synonymously to refer to the intra-articular cartilage present in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). For this reason, this study aims to expose the greek roots of the terms disc and meniscus to evaluate the coherence between their lexical and morphological relationships. Both terms were consulted in the International Federative Program of Anatomical Terminology and in Greek, Spanish and, English dictionaries. The search reported that the term "disc" derives from the Latin discus, and this in turn from the Greek δίσκος [dískos], which means "cylindrical body whose base is very large compared to its height". For its part, "meniscus" comes from the Greek mēnískos μηνίσκος [mḗn μήν gr. μείς 'meis', 'crescent moon' + -iskos Gr. Diminutive suffix 'small'] which means "small crescent moon" and, is defined as "cartilage with a semilunar shape and decreasing thickness from the periphery to the center; It is part of the knee joint. Therefore, the anatomical definition of articular disc and meniscus is determined by its morphology according to the etymology of the word. In the TMJ, an articular disc is found between the articular bones, depending on their morphology.

Principales tecnologías de indización en las ciencias de la salud que se emplean en Occidente / Main indexing healthcare technologies used in West

En la actualidad, las tecnologías de indización en las ciencias de la salud están aportando mu-chos beneficios para el ámbito biomédico y la estandarización de su correspondiente termino-logía, puesto que esta cuestión es fundamental para lograr un diagnóstico médico más preciso e inequívoco Por esta razón, en este artículo se ha explicado con detalle cómo funcionan estas tecnologías: Terminología Anatómica In-ternacional (TAI), Medical Subject Headings y el Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine Cli-nical terminology (SNOMED CT), así como, las razones de la importancia de su uso para los sanitarios y los terminólogos.(AU)

Nowadays, healthcare indexing technologies are profiting the biomedical field and the stand-ardization of its corresponding terminology, since this is essential to achieve a more pre-cise and unequivocal medical diagnosis. Thus, in this article it has been performed a thorough explanation on how these healthcare technolo-gies work: International Anatomical Terminology (TAI), Medical Subject Headings and the Sys-tematised Nomenclature of Medicine Clinical terminology (SNOMED CT), as well as it was elucidated the reasons of its use for healthcare professionals and terminologists.(AU)

Description and nomenclature of organ subdivisions in the Terminologia Anatomica and in anatomical education: Comparison with cancer classifications.

Terminology is the basis for communication among medical professionals. For anatomists, their daily work is based on the Terminologia Anatomica (TA), while pathologists cite the Tumor Node Metastasis (TNM) classification when referring to the anatomical boundaries and regions of malignant tumors. Terminologia Anatomica and clinical-based classifications, including the TMN classification of tumors, use a world-wide standardized nomenclature, which has been revised regularly to incorporate new anatomical discoveries and clinically relevant structures. In medical education, students are familiarized with medical nomenclatures in anatomy textbooks and online learning platforms. Sometime, descriptions and illustrations in anatomy teaching materials put a different focus on the importance of anatomical subdivisions and their borders than is found in cancer classifications. This discrepancy contrasts with the efforts of medical societies to define and implement clinically relevant anatomical structures, including organ subdivisions and their boundaries, in daily clinical practice. Here, we illustrate this problem using the larynx and pancreas as examples. Anatomy education should coordinate teaching content with the requirements of the clinical disciplines.

Análisis de los textos escolares del estudiante de ciencias naturales en primer ciclo básico desde la perspectiva de la terminología anatómica internacional / Analysis of science and biology school textbooks in primary from the perspective of international anatomical terminology

A pesar de los esfuerzos por generar una terminología unificada, hoy en día aún se implementan términos morfológicos obsoletos en diferentes contextos, como por ejemplo, los textos escolares, que son herramientas ampliamente utilizadas por el sistema escolar chileno. Se analizó la terminología morfológica utilizada en textos del estudiante de enseñanza básica (1° básico a 6° básico) propuestos por el Ministerio de Educación de Chile. Este análisis se realizó comparando los términos hallados en los textos mencionados, con la terminología morfológica propuesta por la federación internacional de terminología anatómica. Además, se propone una traducción al español para aquellos términos que se encuentran erróneos en los textos analizados. Los resultados muestran que de un total de 254 términos el 35,8 % es incorrecto. De estos, los más mencionados por los textos son: sistema locomotor, sistema circulatorio, brazo, entre otros. Frente a esto, se concluye que es importante que los textos escolares utilizados en el sistema educativo sean revisados por expertos, para evitar obstáculos en el aprendizaje de la anatomía.

SUMMARY: Despite efforts to generate a unified terminology, obsolete morphological terms are still used in different contexts, such as school textbooks, which are tools widely used by the Chilean school system. The morphological terminology used in texts for elementary school students (grades 1 to 6) proposed by the Chilean Ministry of Education was analyzed. This analysis was carried out by comparing the terms found in the school texts with the morphological terminology proposed by the international federation of anatomical terminology. In addition, a translation into Spanish is proposed for those terms that are found to be erroneous in the texts analyzed. The results show that out of a total of 254 terms, 35.8 % are incorrect. Among the terms with errors, the most mentioned by the texts are: locomotor system, circulatory system, arm, among others. In view of this, we conclude that it is important that the textbooks used in the educational system be reviewed by experts to avoid obstacles in the learning of anatomy.

The illustrations and terminology of Hamse-i Sânizâde written by Sânizâde Ataullah Efendi: the stomach / Las ilustraciones y terminología de Hamse-i Sânizâde escrito por Sânizâde Ataullah Efendi: el estómago

SUMMARY: The book "Mirâtü'l-Ebdân fi Tesrîh-i Âzâü'l-Insân" written by Sânîzâde Mehmet Ataullah Efendi was the first illustrated anatomy book published in the Ottoman Empire. The aim of this study was to determine the similarities and differences between the terms and definitions of stomach anatomy used by Sânîzâde at that time and those used today. The stomach section of the "Mirâtü'l-Ebdân fi Tesrîh-i Âzâü'l-Insân" was examined and related plates were translated into the Turkish language. Anatomical terms and definitions of stomach anatomy in this book were compared to the stomach terminology used in "Terminologia Anatomica" which is the reference book for terminology today. The stomach section was explained under the title "El-Babu-Sâlis fi Tesrihi'l-Mi'de" (Illustrated Stomach Anatomy) in this book. Parts, margins, arteries, veins, nerves and layers of the stomach were explained with the terms and definitions of that period. Terminologia Anatomica has 33 anatomical terms related to the stomach, while 15 terms were identified in the book "Mirâtü'l-Ebdân fi Tesrîh-i Âzâü'l-Insân". Although more terms related to the stomach anatomy are used today, the fundamental information on stomach anatomy in Sânîzâde's book was compatible with much of the information used in modern anatomy books today.

El libro "Mirâtü'l-Ebdân fi Tesrîh-i Âzâü'l- Insân" escrito por Sânîzâde Mehmet Ataullah Efendi fue el primer libro de anatomía ilustrado y publicado en el Imperio Otomano. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar las similitudes y diferen- cias entre los términos y definiciones de la anatomía del estómago utilizados por Sânîzâde en ese momento y los que se utilizan en la actualidad. Se examinó la sección del estómago del "Mirâtü'l-Ebdân fi Tesrîh-i Âzâü'l-Insân" y las placas relacionadas se tradujeron al idioma turco. Los términos anatómicos y las definiciones de la anatomía del estómago en este libro se compararon con la terminología del estómago utilizada en Terminologia Anatomica, el libro de referencia para la terminología utilizado actualmente. La sección del estómago se explicó bajo el título "El-Babu-Sâlis fi Tesrihi'l-Mi'de" (Anatomía del estómago ilustrada) en este libro. Fueron definidas las partes, márgenes, arterias, venas, nervios y capas del estómago con los términos y definiciones de esa época. Terminologia Anatomica tiene 33 términos anatómicos relacionados con el estómago, mientras que 15 términos fueron identificados en el libro "Mirâtü'l-Ebdân fi Tesrîh-i Âzâü'l-Insân". Aunque hoy en día se utilizan más términos relacionados con la anatomía del estómago, la información fundamental sobre la anatomía del estómago en el libro de Sânîzâde era compatible con gran parte de la información utilizada en los libros de anatomía modernos en la actualidad.

Historia y reconceptualización del término sacro / History and reconceptualization of the sacrum term

RESUMEN: En Terminologia Anatomica el término sacro es identificado con el número 1071. En el humano, es el hueso vertebral de mayor tamaño formado por la fusión de cinco vértebras. El origen del término sacro sigue en discusión y no está del todo claro, además, la pertinencia de esta denominación ha sido poco abordada en la literatura. Así, el objetivo de este artículo fue analizar el término sacro y luego proponer un término para la denominación de esta estructura anatómica siguiendo las recomendaciones de la Federative International Programme for Anatomical Terminology (FIPAT). A este hueso se le llamó sacro, por considerarse sagrado, ya que tiene un profundo significado religioso, aunque también se le ha atribuido otras tradiciones como las místicas y los rituales. El término sacro no favorece el entendimiento, ya que no es descriptivo ni informativo, por lo que sugerimos su cambio a vértebra magna (vertebrae magna), ya que esta propuesta sigue las recomendaciones de la FIPAT, es decir, no solo ser unívoco, sino también preciso.

SUMMARY: In International Anatomical Terminology, the term sacrum is identified with the number 1071. In humans, it is the largest vertebral bone formed by the fusion of five vertebrae. The origin of the term sacrum is still under discussion and is not entirely clear, in addition, the relevance of this denomination has been little addressed in the literature. Thus, the objective of this work was to analyze the term sacrum and then propose a term for the denomination of this anatomical structure following the recommendations of the Federative International Program for Anatomical Terminology (FIPAT). This bone was called sacrum, because it is considered sacred, since it has a deep religious meaning, although other traditions such as mysticism and rituals have also been attributed to it. The term sacrum does not favor understanding, since it is neither descriptive nor informative, so we suggest changing it to vertebrae magna (vertebrae magna), since this proposal follows the FIPAT recommendations, that is, not only be unequivocal, but also accurate.

Anastomosis between the posterior superior alveolar artery and the infra-orbital artery: a review of current terminology / Anastomosis entre la arteria alveolar superior posterior y la arteria infra-orbital: una revisión de la terminología actual

SUMMARY: The posterior superior alveolar artery (PSAA) and the infra-orbital artery (IOA) present intraosseous and extraosseous rami which form an anastomosis in the lateral wall of the maxillary sinus. This anastomosis is always present, however it has not yet been included in anatomical terminology (AT), and different terms are used in scientific communication to refer to it. The aim of this study was to carry out a review of the different terms used to name this vascular structure. A literature review was carried out on the terms used to name the anastomosis between the PSAA and IOA in imaging studies and human cadavers that assessed the presence/frequency of this anatomical structure. The search was carried out in the Medline, EMBASE and LILACS databases, in Portuguese, Spanish and English, with no date restrictions. Qualitative analysis was applied to the studies selected, analysing the terminology used to refer to the anastomosis between the PSAA and IOA. Of the 2108 original articles found, 60 were selected as potentially relevant and 54 studies were finally included for qualitative analysis. Sixteen terms were found to refer to the anastomosis between the PSAA and IOA, the most frequent being Posterior Superior Alveolar Artery (PSAA), followed by Alveolar Antral Artery (AAA). Many terms are used in the medical literature to designate the anastomosis between the PSAA and IOA, the most frequent being PSAA and AAA. There is a need to unify the terms used to designate this vascular structure, and to incorporate the selected term into anatomical terminology, in order to avoid confusion in scientific communication.

RESUMEN: La arteria alveolar superior posterior (AASP) y la arteria infra-orbital (AIO) tienen ramas intra y extra óseas que forman una anastomosis en la pared lateral del seno maxilar. Esta anastomosis está siempre presente, sin embargo, aún no ha sido incluida en la terminología anatómica (TA), por lo que en la comunicación científica se utilizan diferentes términos para referirse a ella. El objetivo de este estudio fue realizar una revisión sobre los diferentes términos utilizados para nombrar esta estructura vascular. Se realizó una revisión de la literatura sobre los términos utilizados para nombrar la anastomosis entre AASP y AIO en estudios imagenológicos y en cadáveres humanos que evaluaron la presencia/frecuencia de esta estructura anatómica. La búsqueda fue realizada en las bases de datosMedline, EMBASE y LILACS, en los idiomas portugués, español e inglés, sin restricción de fecha. Los estudios seleccionados fueron evaluados de forma cualitativa, analizando la terminología empleada para referirse a la anastomosis entre AASP y AIO. Fueron encontrados 2108 artículos originales, siendo seleccionados 60 artículos potencialmente relevantes y finalmente fueron incluidos 54 estudios para análisis cualitativo. Fueron encontrados 16 términos para referirse a la anastomosis entre AASP y AIO, siendo AASP el más frecuente seguido de arteria alveolo-antral (AAA). Son muchos los términos utilizados en la literatura médica para designar la anastomosis entre AASP y AIO, siendo AASP y AAA los más usados. La unificación de los términos utilizados para designar esta estructura vascular y su incorporación en la Terminología Anatómica contribuiría a evitar equívocos en la comunicación científica.

Scapula revisited: new features identified and denoted by terms using consensus method of Delphi and taxonomy panel to be implemented in radiologic and surgical practice.

BACKGROUND: The scapular structures that have not yet been assigned anatomic terms generate a challenge in clinical diagnostics and surgical application, as well as in scientific observation. The aim of this study was to solve the lack in terminology concerning the scapula and the scapular region. METHODS: Observation and description of 29 structures were carried out on both dry scapulae and radiographs of the shoulder joint. In addition, several terms commonly encountered throughout the literature concerning the scapula were revised. A degree of consensus was reached by using the Delphi method surveying the opinions of 21 invited experts in the field. Taxonomy panels and etymology of anatomic terminology were considered in the generation of the proposed terms. RESULTS: The scapula was redefined as a lamina with projecting processes, and several landmarks demarcating certain newly defined topographic spaces were highlighted via 2 rounds of Delphi systematic voting and discussion. The overall level of the peer nominees' consensus was high. Few terms received a neutral opinion. CONCLUSIONS: This study communicates a proposal of 16 new terms defining grossly visible structures on the scapula that have not yet been described by officially recognized terms, including a call to unify 13 previously contributed terms that have not been codified and are often used interchangeably within different surgical and scientific fields. Incorporating these terms into the anatomic nomenclature would facilitate communication accuracy and eliminate ambiguity among clinicians, surgeons, and anatomists.

Los términos corpus rubrum, corpus luteum y corpus albicans en terminologia anatomica del ovario / The terms rubrum, luteum and albicans in terminologia anatomica of the ovary

RESUMEN: El objetivo del presente artículo fue revisar la etimología de los términos Corpus rubrum, Corpus luteum y Corpus albicans, identificar si la forma de nombrarlos en las diferentes nóminas y terminologías internacionales están acorde a las sugerencias de la FIPAT y, analizar y reflexionar respecto de la pertinencia de estos términos en la Terminologia Anatomica. Se buscó en primer lugar el significado de las raíces latinas de los términos: Corpus rubrum, Corpus luteum y Corpus albicans, en el Diccionario de la Real Academia de la Lengua, última actualización; en el Diccionario Términos Médicos de la Real Academia Nacional de Medicina en España y en el Diccionario Vox, Español Latín. Indagamos en la historia para conocer desde cuando se utilizan estos términos, así como la revisión de las diferentes nomenclaturas, nóminas y terminologías anatómicas, histológicas y embriológicas, desde 1955 hasta la fecha. La búsqueda reportó que estos adjetivos latinos deberían traducirse al español de la siguiente manera: rubrum como rojo; luteum como amarillo y albicans como albicante que significa blanquear, por lo que la traducción correcta debiera ser: Cuerpo rojo, Cuerpo amarillo y Cuerpo albicante o blanco del ovario, estructuras transitorias y funcionales. Los términos Corpus rubrum, Corpus luteum y Corpus albicans que identifican estructuras del ovario en Terminologia Anatomica y Terminologia Histologica deberían ser revisados, puesto que son estructuras transitorias y su nombre sólo indica el color que adquieren en el momento funcional y es referente a los cambios que presenta la misma estructura.

SUMMARY: The aim of this article was to review the etymology of the terms Corpus rubrum, Corpus luteum and Corpus albicans, to identify if the way of naming them in the different lists and international terminologies are in accordance with the FIPAT suggestions and to analyze and reflect on the relevance of these terms in the Terminologia Anatomica. Firstly, the meaning of the Latin roots of the terms: Corpus rubrum, Corpus luteum and Corpus albicans were searched in the dictionaries: of the Royal Academy of Language, latest update; of the Medical Terms of the Royal National Academy of Medicine in Spain; in the Vox dictionary, Spanish Latin. Then we investigate the history to know since when these terms are used, as well as the review of the different anatomical, histological and embryological lists and terminologies from 1955 to date. The search reported that these Latin adjectives should be translated as follows: rubrum as red; luteum as yellow and albicans as albicante which means to whiten, therefore, the correct translation should be: Red body, Yellow body and Albicans or white body of the ovary, they are also transitory and functional structures. The terms Corpus rubrum, Corpus luteum and Corpus albicans that identify ovarian structures in the Terminologia Anatomica and Terminologia Histologica should be reviewed since they are transitory structures and their name only indicates the color they acquire at the functional moment and refers to the changes that the same structure presents.

Himen: un epónimo y mito de larga data en terminologia anatomica / Hymen: a long-standing eponym and myth in terminologia anatomica

RESUMEN: En Terminología Anatómica el término himen es identificado con el número 3530. Es un pequeño tejido membranoso que normalmente ocupa una parte de la abertura vaginal externa en la mujer. La pertinencia del término himen ha sido poco abordada en la literatura del campo terminológico anatómico, por tanto, el objetivo del presente trabajo fue analizar este término, verificar su etimología y funcionalidad, y determinar cómo este ha sido considerado en algunos aspectos de orden cultural, clínico y jurídico. El término himen proviene del latín hymen que es préstamo del griego hymḗn ὑμήν que significa membrana. Con el valor general de cualquier membrana fue usado en Grecia desde el siglo V a.C., sin embargo, a través de un fenómeno de especialización latina, a partir de los siglos I y II d.C., el término fue usado con su significado actual. Su origen proviene del nombre del dios griego del matrimonio llamado Himeneo, lo que vincula el término a un epónimo y mito a la vez. Pese a lo anterior, creemos que su conservación en Terminología Anatómica se podría deber a su larga data de uso, aun cuando podrían existir mejores opciones para denominar esta estructura. El himen no presenta una función biológica conocida, sin embargo, ha tenido gran valoración a nivel cultural, clínico y jurídico, en el que el examen físico ha determinado conclusiones sobre la historia sexual de mujeres y niñas aun cuando las evidencias demuestran que no es una prueba precisa o confiable de la actividad sexual.

SUMMARY: In Terminologia Anatomica the term hymen is identified with the number 3530. It is a small membranous tissue that normally occupies a part of the external vaginal opening in women. The relevance of the term hymen has been scarcely addressed in the literature of the anatomical terminology field. Therefore, the objective of this work was to analyze this term, verify its etymology and functionality, and determine how it has been considered in certain cultural clinical and legal aspects. The term hymen comes from the Latin hymen, borrowed from the Greek hymḗn ὑμήν , which means membrane. With the general value of any membrane, it was used in Greece from the 5th century BC, however, through a phenomenon of Latin specialization, from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the term was used applying its current meaning. Its origin comes from the name of the Greek god of marriage called Hymenaeus, which links the term to an eponym and a myth at the same time. Despite the above, we believe that its conservation in Terminologia Anatomica could be due to its long history, even though there may be better options to name this structure. The hymen does not have a known biological function, however, it has been highly valued at a cultural, clinical and legal level, in which the physical examination has determined conclusions about the sexual history of women and girls even when the evidence shows that it is not an accurate or reliable proof of sexual activity.

The Epic of the Thalamus in Anatomical Language.

Understanding the origin of Greek and Latin words used as metaphors to label brain structures gives a unique window into how scientific and medical knowledge was produced, preserved, and transmitted through generations. The history of the term thalamus exemplifies the complex historical process that led to the current anatomical terminology. From its first mention by Galen of Pergamon in the 2nd century A.D. to its definitive and current use by Thomas Willis in 1664, the thalamus had an epical journey through 1500 years across Europe, the Middle East, and the North of Africa. The thalamus was confusingly described by Galen, in the Greek language, as a chamber to the brain ventricles. The term thalamus was transferred from Greek to Syriac through the translations of Galen's books done in Baghdad and also from Syriac to Arabic. Then, it was translated in Europe during the Middle Ages from the Arabic versions of Galen's books to Latin. Later, during the Early Renaissance, it was translated again to Latin directly from the Greek versions of Galen's books. Along this epical journey through languages, the term thalamus switched from referring to a hollow structure connected to brain ventricles to naming a solid structure at the rostral end of the brainstem. Finally, the thalamus was translated from Latin to modern languages, where it is used, until today, to name a nuclear complex of subcortical gray matter in the lateral walls of the third ventricle.

El ciclo de la terminología anatómica: evolución e involución / The cycle of anatomical terminology: evolution and involution

RESUMEN: La terminología anatómica internacional consiste de una serie de términos especializados que han sido estudiados, depurados y consensuados a través del tiempo, pero la educación actual en sus diversos niveles de escolaridad la utiliza para luego suplantarla, y lo que unos fundamentan desde la especialización morfológica, otros no expertos del tema, eliminan por imposición especialmente en niveles de enseñanza más superior en la formación universitaria. La educación terminológica anatómica surge en el ambiente familiar como primera impronta mental, empleando términos vulgares cotidianos, luego se modifica con el inicio de la escolaridad y a medida que avanza durante la formación académica, se pule adoptando la Terminologia Anatomica de carácter internacional, pero en el mismo nivel formativo universitario vuelve a modificarse en semestres superiores por no especialistas en anatomía, cimentándose y anulando la terminología de validez internacional, cerrando el ciclo de la enseñanza terminológica anatómica, cuando el médico utiliza terminología obsoleta, al enseñar a sus pacientes, los que a su vez la transmiten a sus hijos, perpetuando el error. Los problemas derivados del uso de la terminología anatómica, se deben abordar integradamente por todos sus participantes, ejerciendo la responsabilidad de cada uno sin aceptarla ciegas, sino mediante una elección racional, para que esta sea realmente científica.

SUMMARY: The international anatomical terminology consists of a series of specialized terms that have been studied, refined and agreed over time, but current education in its various levels of schooling uses it to later supplant it, and what some base from morphological specialization, other non-experts on the subject, eliminate by imposition, especially at higher education levels in university training. The use of anatomical language is first established in the nuclear family, where children are taught common or vernacular terms, in order that they may communicate to their parents parts of their bodies that hurt, and relate to their environment. This language evolves with the initiation of school life, during which it is perfected, and terminological vocabulary is broadened to its maximum, with the incorporation of the Terminologia Anatomica. This generally occurs during the first few years of university studies, in health faculties. Unfortunately, with the entrance of clinical sciences and the consequent imposition of inappropriate anatomical language, characterized by an abundance of eponyms and obsolete terms, students are confronted with terminological and conceptual chaos, which invariably affects their comprehension and learning. New professionals, irrationally, accept this obsolete language, which they then transmit to their patients and children, perpetuating the error.