A combination of Citrus aurantifolia fruit rind and Theobroma cacao seed extracts supplementation enhances metabolic rates in overweight subjects: a randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study.

Background and objective: LN19183 is a proprietary, synergistic combination of Citrus aurantifolia fruit rind and Theobroma cacao seed extracts that increased resting energy expenditure (REE) in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed obese rats. The objective of this study was to validate the thermogenic potential of LN19183 in obese Sprague Dawley (SD) rats and to assess its clinical efficacy in a proof-of-concept, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over human trial. Methods: In the rat study, HFD-fed obese rats were supplemented with either HFD alone or with 45, 90, or 180 mg LN19183 per kg body weight (BW) for 28 days. In the human study, 60 overweight adults (male and female, aged 20-39 years) were randomized. Subjects took LN19183 (450 mg) or a matched placebo capsule on two consecutive days in phases one and two of the study, separated by a 10-day washout period. In each phase, on day 1, REE at pre-dose, 60-, 120-, and 180-min post-dose, and on day 2, metabolic rates at pre-dose and post-dose during and 20 min after exercise were measured using indirect calorimetry. Results: In rats, LN19183 significantly increased REE, reduced BW gain and fat masses, and increased fat and carbohydrate metabolism marker proteins including beta 3 adrenergic receptor (ß3-AR), phospho-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) in the liver, and serum adiponectin levels. Furthermore, LN19183-supplemented human volunteers increased (P < 0.05, vs. placebo) the metabolic rates at rest and with exercise; their fat oxidation was increased (P < 0.05, vs. placebo) at rest and 20 min post-exercise. The groups' systolic and diastolic blood pressure (BP), heart rates (HR), and safety parameters were comparable. Conclusion: These observations suggest that LN19183 is a thermogenic botanical composition with no stimulatory effects on BP and HR.

Effects of post-exercise intake of exogenous lactate on energy substrate utilization at rest.

PURPOSE: This study investigated the effects of exogenous lactate intake on energy metabolism during 1 h of rest after acute exercise. METHODS: Eight-week-old ICR mice were randomly divided into four groups: SED (no treatment), EXE (exercise only), LAC (post-exercise oral lactate administration), and SAL (post-exercise saline administration) (n=8 per group). The exercise intensity was at VO2max 80% at 25 m/min and 15° slope for 50 min. After acute exercise, the LAC and SAL groups ingested lactate and saline orally, respectively, and were allowed to rest in a chamber. Energy metabolism was measured for 1 h during the resting period. RESULTS: LAC and SAL group mice ingested lactate and saline, respectively, after exercise and the blood lactate concentration was measured 1 h later through tail blood sampling. Blood lactate concentration was not significantly different between the two groups. Energy metabolism measurements under stable conditions revealed that the respiratory exchange ratio in the LAC group was significantly lower than that in the SAL group. Additionally, carbohydrate oxidation in the LAC group was significantly lower than that in the SAL group at 10-25 min. No significant difference was observed in the fat oxidation level between the two groups. CONCLUSION: We found that post-exercise lactate intake modified the respiratory exchange ratio after 1 h of rest. In addition, acute lactate ingestion inhibits carbohydrate oxidation during the post-exercise recovery period.

The metabolic effects of habitual leg shaking: A randomized crossover trial.

AIMS: The adverse effects of sedentary behavior on obesity and chronic diseases are well established. However, the prevalence of sedentary behavior has increased, with only a minority of individuals meeting the recommended physical activity guidelines. This study aimed to investigate whether habitual leg shaking, a behavior traditionally considered unfavorable, could serve as an effective strategy to improve energy metabolism. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A randomized crossover study was conducted, involving 15 participants (mean [SD] age, 25.4 [3.6]; mean [SD] body mass index, 22 [3]; 7 women [46.7%]). The study design involved a randomized sequence of sitting and leg shaking conditions, with each condition lasting for 20 min. Energy expenditure, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, and other relevant variables were measured during each condition. RESULTS: Compared to sitting, leg shaking significantly increased total energy expenditure [1.088 kj/min, 95% confidence interval, 0.69-1.487 kj/min], primarily through elevated carbohydrate oxidation. The average metabolic equivalent during leg shaking exhibited a significant increase from 1.5 to 1.8. Leg shaking also raised respiratory rate, minute ventilation, and blood oxygen saturation levels, while having no obvious impact on heart rate or blood pressure. Electromyography data confirmed predominant activation of lower leg muscles and without increased muscle fatigue. Intriguingly, a significant correlation was observed between the increased energy expenditure and both the frequency of leg shaking and the muscle mass of the legs. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides evidence that habitual leg shaking can boost overall energy expenditure by approximately 16.3%. This simple and feasible approach offers a convenient way to enhance physical activity levels.

Substrate utilization and durability during prolonged intermittent exercise in elite road cyclists.

PURPOSE: This study investigated the effects of prolonged intermittent cycling exercise on peak power output (PPO) and 6-min time-trial (6 min-TT) performance in elite and professional road cyclists. Moreover, the study aimed to determine whether changes in performance in the fatigued state could be predicted from substrate utilization during exercise and laboratory measures obtained in a fresh state. METHODS: Twelve cyclists (age: 23 years [21;25]; body mass: 71.5 kg [66.7;76.8]; height: 181 cm [178;185]; V ˙ O2peak: 73.6 ml kg-1 min-1 [71.2;76.0]) completed a graded submaximal cycling test to determine lactate threshold (LT1), gross efficiency (GE), and maximal fat oxidation (MFO) as well as power output during a maximal 6 min-TT (MPO6 min) in a fresh condition. On a separate day, the cyclists completed a 4-h intermittent cycling protocol with a high CHO intake (100 g h-1). Substrate utilization and PPO was measured hourly during the protocol, which was followed by another 6 min-TT. RESULTS: MPO6 min and PPO was reduced by 10% [4;15] and 6% [0;6], respectively, after the cycling protocol. These reductions were accompanied by reductions in the anaerobic energy contribution and V ˙ O2peak, whereas the average V ˙ O2 during the 6 min-TT was unchanged. Correlation analyses showed no strong associations between reductions in MPO6 min and PPO and laboratory measures (i.e., LT1, GE, MFO, V ˙ O2peak) obtained in the fresh condition. Additionally, fat oxidation rates during the cycling protocol were not related to changes in neither PPO nor MPO6 min. CONCLUSION: PPO and MPO6 min were reduced following prolonged intermittent cycling, but the magnitude of these reductions could not be predicted from laboratory measures obtained in the fresh condition.

Load carriage physiology in normoxia and hypoxia.

PURPOSE: To determine the effects of load carriage in normoxia and normobaric hypoxia on ventilatory responses, hemodynamics, tissue oxygenation, and metabolism. METHODS: Healthy males (n = 12) completed 3 randomly ordered baseline graded exercise tests in the following conditions: (1) unloaded normoxic (U: FIO2 = 20.93%), (2) loaded (~ 30 kg) normoxic (LN), and (3) loaded hypoxic simulating ~ 3650 m (LH: FIO2 = ~ 13%). Thereafter, experimental exercise trials were completed in quasi-randomized order (i.e., U completed first) consisting of 3 × 10 min of walking (separated by 5 min seated rest) with stages matched with the U condition (in ascending order) for relative intensity, absolute oxygen consumption ([VO2]; 1.7 L min-1), and walking speed (1.45 ± 0.15 m s-1). RESULTS: Load carriage increased perceived exertion and reduced VO2max (LN: - 7%; LH: - 32%; p < 0.05). At matched VO2, stroke volume and tidal volume were reduced and maintained with LN and LH vs. U, respectively (p < 0.05). Increases in cardiac output and minute ventilation at matched VO2 (with LH) and speed (with LN and LH), were primarily accomplished via increases in heart rate and breathing frequency (p < 0.05). Cerebral oxygenated hemoglobin (O2HHb) was increased at all intensities with LN, but deoxygenated hemoglobin and total hemoglobin were increased with LH (p < 0.05). Muscle oxygen kinetics and substrate utilization were similar between LN and U, but LH increased CHO dependence and reduced muscle O2HHb at matched speed (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Load carriage reduces cardiorespiratory efficiency and increases physiological strain, particularly in hypoxic environments. Potential load carriage-induced alterations in cerebral blood flow may increase the risk for altitude illnesses and requires further study.

Recovery after Running an "Everesting" Mountain Ultramarathon.

Blood markers of muscle microdamage and systemic inflammation do not adequately explain the reduced performance observed over a prolonged recovery after running a mountain ultramarathon. This case study aimed to determine whether the reduced performance after the Everesting mountain ultramarathon can be further assessed by considering cardiorespiratory and metabolic alterations determined via repeated incremental and continuous running tests. A single runner (age: 24 years, BM: 70 kg, BMI: 22, Vo2peak: 74 mL∙min-1∙kg-1) was observed over a preparatory period of two months with a one-month recovery period. The Everesting consisted of nine ascents and descents of 9349 vertical metres completed in 18:22 (h:min). During the first phase of the recovery, enhanced peak creatine kinase (800%) and C-reactive protein (44%) levels explained the decreased performance. In contrast, decreased performance during the second, longer phase was associated with a decreased lactate threshold and Vo2 (21% and 17%, respectively), as well as an increased energetic cost of running (15%) and higher endogenous carbohydrate oxidation rates (87%), lactate concentrations (170%) and respiratory muscle fatigue sensations that remained elevated for up to one month. These alterations may represent characteristics that can explain the second phase of the recovery process after Everesting.

Pre-exercise isomaltulose intake affects carbohydrate oxidation reduction during endurance exercise and maximal power output in the subsequent Wingate test.

BACKGROUND: Ingestion of low-glycemic index (GI) isomaltulose (ISO) not only suppresses subsequent carbohydrate (CHO) oxidation but also inversely retains more CHO after prolonged endurance exercise. Therefore, ISO intake may affect anaerobic power output after prolonged endurance exercise. This study aimed to clarify the time course of CHO utilization during endurance exercise after a single intake of ISO or sucrose (SUC) and the anaerobic power output at the end of endurance exercise. METHODS: After an intake of either ISO or SUC, 13 athletes were kept at rest for 60 min. Thereafter, they performed a 90-min of treadmill running at their individual target level of % [Formula: see text]max. During the experimental session, the expired gas was recorded, and the energy expenditure (EE) and CHO oxidation rate were estimated. Immediately after 90 min of running, a 30-s Wingate test was performed, and the maximal anaerobic power output was compared between the ISO and SUC conditions. RESULTS: The percentage of CHO-derived EE increased rapidly after CHO intake and then decreased gradually throughout the experiment. The slopes of the regression lines calculated from the time course in the CHO-derived EE were significantly (negatively) larger in the SUC condition (-19.4 ± 9.6 [%/h]) than in the ISO condition (-13.3 ± 7.5 [%/h]). Furthermore, the maximal power output in the Wingate test immediately after the endurance exercise was significantly higher in the ISO condition than in the SUC condition (peak power: 12.0 ± 0.6 vs. 11.5 ± 0.9 [W/kg]). CONCLUSION: Compared with SUC intake, ISO intake does not produce an abrupt decline in the percentage of CHO-derived EE during prolonged endurance exercise; it remains relatively high until the final exercise phase. Additionally, anaerobic power output at the end of the exercise, largely contributed by anaerobic glycolysis, was greater after ISO intake than after SUC intake.

The impact of natural menstrual cycle and oral contraceptive pill phase on substrate oxidation during rest and acute submaximal aerobic exercise.

Previous research has identified sex differences in substrate oxidation during submaximal aerobic exercise including a lower respiratory exchange ratio (RER) in females compared with males. These differences may be related to differences in sex hormones. Our purpose was to examine the impact of the natural menstrual cycle (NAT) and second- and third-generation oral contraceptive pill (OCP2 and OCP3) cycle phases on substrate oxidation during rest and submaximal aerobic exercise. Fifty female participants (18 NAT, 17 OCP2, and 15 OCP3) performed two experimental trials that coincided with the low (i.e., nonactive pill/early follicular) and the high hormone (i.e., active pill/midluteal) phase of their cycle. RER and carbohydrate and lipid oxidation rates were determined from gas exchange measurements performed during 10 min of supine rest, 5 min of seated rest, and two 8-min bouts of submaximal cycling exercise at ∼40% and ∼65% of peak oxygen uptake (V̇o2peak). For all groups, there were no differences in RER between the low and high hormone phases during supine rest (0.73 ± 0.05 vs. 0.74 ± 0.05), seated rest (0.72 ± 0.04 vs. 0.72 ± 0.04), exercise at 40% (0.77 ± 0.04 vs. 0.78 ± 0.04), and 65% V̇o2peak (0.85 ± 0.04 vs. 0.86 ± 0.03; P > 0.19 for all). Similarly, carbohydrate and lipid oxidation rates remained largely unchanged across phases during both rest and exercise, apart from higher carbohydrate oxidation in NAT vs. OCP2 at 40% V̇o2peak (P = 0.019) and 65% V̇o2peak (P = 0.001). NAT and OCPs do not appear to largely influence substrate oxidation at rest and during acute submaximal aerobic exercise.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study was the first to examine the influence of NAT and two generations of OCPs on substrate oxidation during rest and acute submaximal aerobic exercise. We reported no differences across cycle phases or groups on RER, and minimal impact on carbohydrate or lipid oxidation apart from an increase in carbohydrate oxidation in NAT compared with OCP2 during exercise. Based on these findings, NAT/OCP phase controls may not be necessary in studies investigating substrate oxidation.

Effect of Non- and Low-Caloric Sweeteners on Substrate Oxidation, Energy Expenditure, and Catecholamines in Humans-A Systematic Review.

The use of non- and low-caloric sweetener(s) (NCS and LCS) as a means to prevent overweight and obesity is highly debated, as both NCS and LCS have been proposed to have a negative impact on energy homeostasis. This systematic review aimed to assess the impact of NCS and LCS on fasting and postprandial substrate oxidation, energy expenditure, and catecholamines, compared to caloric sweeteners or water, across different doses and types of NCS and LCS, acutely and in the longer-term. A total of 20 studies were eligible: 16 studies for substrate oxidation and energy expenditure and four studies for catecholamines. Most studies compared the acute effects of NCS or LCS with caloric sweeteners under non-isoenergetic conditions. These studies generally found higher fat oxidation and lower carbohydrate oxidation with NCS or LCS than with caloric sweeteners. Findings for energy expenditure were inconsistent. With the limited number of studies, no convincing pattern for the remaining outcomes and comparisons could be seen. In conclusion, drinks or meals with NCS or LCS resulted in higher fat and lower carbohydrate oxidation compared to caloric sweeteners. No other conclusions could be drawn due to insufficient or inconsistent results. Further studies in this research field are warranted.

Recovery from FOLFOX chemotherapy-induced systemic and skeletal muscle metabolic dysfunction in mice.

FOLFOX (5-fluorouracil, leucovorin, oxaliplatin) chemotherapy is used to treat colorectal cancer and can acutely induce metabolic dysfunction. However, the lasting effects on systemic and skeletal muscle metabolism after treatment cessation are poorly understood. Therefore, we investigated the acute and lasting effects of FOLFOX chemotherapy on systemic and skeletal muscle metabolism in mice. Direct effects of FOLFOX in cultured myotubes were also investigated. Male C57BL/6J mice completed four cycles (acute) of FOLFOX or PBS. Subsets were allowed to recover for 4 wk or 10 wk. Comprehensive Laboratory Animal Monitoring System (CLAMS) metabolic measurements were performed for 5 days before study endpoint. C2C12 myotubes were treated with FOLFOX for 24 hr. Acute FOLFOX attenuated body mass and body fat accretion independent of food intake or cage activity. Acute FOLFOX decreased blood glucose, oxygen consumption (V̇o2), carbon dioxide production (V̇co2), energy expenditure, and carbohydrate (CHO) oxidation. Deficits in V̇o2 and energy expenditure remained at 10 wk. CHO oxidation remained disrupted at 4 wk but returned to control levels after 10 wk. Acute FOLFOX reduced muscle COXIV enzyme activity, AMPK(T172), ULK1(S555), and LC3BII protein expression. Muscle LC3BII/I ratio was associated with altered CHO oxidation (r = 0.75, P = 0.03). In vitro, FOLFOX suppressed myotube AMPK(T172), ULK1(S555), and autophagy flux. Recovery for 4 wk normalized skeletal muscle AMPK and ULK1 phosphorylation. Our results provide evidence that FOLFOX disrupts systemic metabolism, which is not readily recoverable after treatment cessation. FOLFOX effects on skeletal muscle metabolic signaling did recover. Further investigations are warranted to prevent and treat FOLFOX-induced metabolic toxicities that negatively impact survival and life quality of patients with cancer.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The present study demonstrates that FOLFOX chemotherapy induces long-lasting deficits in systemic metabolism. Interestingly, FOLFOX modestly suppressed skeletal muscle AMPK and autophagy signaling in vivo and in vitro. The FOLFOX-induced suppression of muscle metabolic signaling recovered after treatment cessation, independent of systemic metabolic dysfunction. Future research should investigate if activating AMPK during treatment can prevent long-term toxicities to improve health and quality of life of patients with cancer and survivors.

High fat diet improves metabolic flexibility during progressive exercise to exhaustion (VO2max testing) and during 5 km running time trials.

Recently we reported similar performances in both progressive tests to exhaustion (VO2max) and 5km running time trials (5KTT) after consuming low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) or high-carbohydrate, low-fat (HCLF) diets. Accordingly, we tested the null hypothesis that the metabolic responses during both tests would be similar across diets. In a randomized, counterbalanced, cross-over design, seven male athletes (VO2max: 61.9 ± 6.1 mL/kg/min; age: 35.6 ± 8.4 years; height: 178.7 ± 4.1 cm; mass: 68.6 ± 1.6 kg; body fat: 5.0 ± 1.3%) completed six weeks of LCHF (6/69/25% energy carbohydrate/fat/protein) and HCLF (57/28/15% energy carbohydrate/fat/protein) diets, separated by a two-week washout. Substrate utilization and energy expenditure were measured during VO2max tests and 5KTTs. The LCHF diet markedly increased fat oxidation and reduced carbohydrate oxidation, with no associated impairment in either the VO2max tests or the 5KTTs. Following the LCHF diet, athletes generated 50% or more of their energy requirements from fat at exercise intensities up to 90% VO2max and reached the crossover point for substrate utilization at ~85% VO2max. In contrast, following the HCLF diet, carbohydrate provided more than 50% of the total energy consumption at all exercise intensities. During the 5KTT, ~56% of energy was derived from fat following the LCHF diet whereas more than 93% of the energy came from carbohydrate following the HCLF diet. This study provides evidence of greater metabolic flexibility following LCHF eating and challenges the popular doctrines of "carbohydrate dependence" for high intensity exercise and the role dietary macronutrients play in human performance.

Low and high carbohydrate isocaloric diets on performance, fat oxidation, glucose and cardiometabolic health in middle age males.

High carbohydrate, low fat (HCLF) diets have been the predominant nutrition strategy for athletic performance, but recent evidence following multi-week habituation has challenged the superiority of HCLF over low carbohydrate, high fat (LCHF) diets, along with growing interest in the potential health and disease implications of dietary choice. Highly trained competitive middle-aged athletes underwent two 31-day isocaloric diets (HCLF or LCHF) in a randomized, counterbalanced, and crossover design while controlling calories and training load. Performance, body composition, substrate oxidation, cardiometabolic, and 31-day minute-by-minute glucose (CGM) biomarkers were assessed. We demonstrated: (i) equivalent high-intensity performance (@∼85%VO2max), fasting insulin, hsCRP, and HbA1c without significant body composition changes across groups; (ii) record high peak fat oxidation rates (LCHF:1.58 ± 0.33g/min @ 86.40 ± 6.24%VO2max; 30% subjects > 1.85 g/min); (iii) higher total, LDL, and HDL cholesterol on LCHF; (iv) reduced glucose mean/median and variability on LCHF. We also found that the 31-day mean glucose on HCLF predicted 31-day glucose reductions on LCHF, and the 31-day glucose reduction on LCHF predicted LCHF peak fat oxidation rates. Interestingly, 30% of athletes had 31-day mean, median and fasting glucose > 100 mg/dL on HCLF (range: 111.68-115.19 mg/dL; consistent with pre-diabetes), also had the largest glycemic and fat oxidation response to carbohydrate restriction. These results: (i) challenge whether higher carbohydrate intake is superior for athletic performance, even during shorter-duration, higher-intensity exercise; (ii) demonstrate that lower carbohydrate intake may be a therapeutic strategy to independently improve glycemic control, particularly in those at risk for diabetes; (iii) demonstrate a unique relationship between continuous glycemic parameters and systemic metabolism.

Influence of lactation stage on heat production and macronutrient oxidation in dairy cows during a 24-hour fasting period.

Understanding nutrient utilization and partitioning is essential for advancing the efficiency of dairy cattle. Our objective was to determine if dairy cows exposed to a 24-h fasting period differ in heat production (HP) and macronutrient oxidation at different stages of lactation. Twelve primiparous, lactating German Holstein dairy cows were used in a longitudinal study design spanning from 2013 to 2014. Dairy cows were housed in respiration chambers during 3 stages of the lactation cycle: early (mean ± SD; 28.8 ± 6.42 d), mid- (89.4 ± 4.52 d), and late (293 ± 7.76 d) lactation. Individual CO2, O2, and CH4 gas exchanges were measured every 6 min for two 24-h periods, an ad libitum period and fasting period (RES). Blood was sampled at the start and end of the RES period. Gas measurements were used to calculate HP, net carbohydrate oxidation (COX), and net fat oxidation (FOX). Measurements were corrected with metabolic BW (kg of BW0.75; cBW). The RES period for each stage of lactation was further subdivided into the start (RESstart) and end (RESend) by averaging the first and last 2 h of the RES period. The net change was calculated as RESend - RESstart. All energy variables differed among lactation stage within the RES period except for HP/cBW. As expected, COX, COX/cBW, COX/HP, HP, and HP/cBW, were greater at the RESstart compared with RESend, whereas FOX, FOX/cBW, and FOX/HP were greater at the RESend except for FOX and FOX/cBW during mid lactation, which was only a tendency for a difference. The net change for COX, COX/cBW, HP, HP/cBW, and FOX/cBW did not differ among stages of lactation. Despite detecting a tendency for a difference among stage of lactation for FOX, pairwise analysis revealed no differences. Plasma triglyceride, urea, and nonesterified fatty acid concentrations were greater at RESend than RESstart. The net change for plasma glucose, urea, ß-hydroxybutyrate, and nonesterified fatty acid concentrations were greater in early than late lactation. Our results demonstrate that despite differences in absolute measurements of energy variables and plasma metabolites, the change in whole-body macronutrient oxidation and HP as cows' transition from a fed-like state to a starvation-like state during a 24-h fasting period is consistent throughout lactation.

Chronic and Postprandial Metabolic Responses to a Ketogenic Diet Compared to High-Carbohydrate and Habitual Diets in Trained Competitive Cyclists and Triathletes: A Randomized Crossover Trial.

Extreme carbohydrate deficits during a ketogenic diet (KD) may result in metabolic adaptations reflective of low energy availability; however, the manifestation of these adaptations outside of exercise have yet to be elucidated in cyclists and triathletes. The purpose of this study is to investigate the chronic and postprandial metabolic responses to a KD compared to a high-carbohydrate diet (HCD) and habitual diet (HD) in trained competitive cyclists and triathletes. For this randomized crossover trial, six trained competitive cyclist and triathletes (F: 4, M: 2) followed an ad libitum KD and HCD for 14 d each after their HD. Fasting energy expenditure (EE), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and fat and carbohydrate oxidation (FatOx and CarbOx, respectively) were collected during their HD and after 14 d on each randomly assigned KD and HCD. Postprandial measurements were collected on day 14 of each diet following the ingestion of a corresponding test meal. There were no significant differences in fasting EE, RER, FatOx, or CarbOx among diet conditions (all p > 0.050). Although postprandial RER and CarbOx were consistently lower following the KD meal, there were no differences in peak postprandial RER (p = 0.452), RER incremental area under the curve (iAUC; p = 0.416) postprandial FatOx (p = 0.122), peak FatOx (p = 0.381), or FatOx iAUC (p = 0.164) between the KD and HD meals. An ad libitum KD does not significantly alter chronic EE or substrate utilization compared to a HCD or HD; postprandial FatOx appears similar between a KD and HD; this is potentially due to the high metabolic flexibility of cyclists and triathletes and the metabolic adaptations made to habitual high-fat Western diets in practice. Cyclists and triathletes should consider these metabolic similarities prior to a KD given the potential health and performance impairments from severe carbohydrate restriction.

Does the Time of Day Play a Role in the Acute Effect of p-Synephrine on Fat Oxidation Rate during Exercise in Women? A Randomized, Crossover and Double-Blind Study.

p-Synephrine is deemed a safe and effective substance to increase fat utilization during exercise of low-to-moderate intensity in men but not in women. Additionally, the existence of a diurnal variation in substrate utilization has been documented during exercise with enhanced fat oxidation in the evening compared with early morning. However, it remains unknown whether there is an interaction between the effect of p-synephrine and the time of the day on fat oxidation during exercise. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the acute ingestion of 3 milligram of p-synephrine per kilogram of body mass (mg/kg) on fat oxidation during exercise of increasing intensity when the exercise is performed in the morning vs. the evening. Using a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled experimental design, 16 healthy and active women performed four identical exercise trials after the ingestion of 3 mg/kg of p-synephrine and 3 mg/kg of a placebo (cellulose) both in the morning (8-10 am) and in the evening (5-7 pm). In the exercise trials, the substances were ingested 60 min before an incremental test on a cycle ergometer with 3 min stages at workloads from 30 to 80% of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). Substrate oxidation rates were measured by indirect calorimetry. In each trial, the maximum rate of fat oxidation (MFO) and the intensity that elicited MFO (Fatmax) were measured. A two-way analysis of variance (time-of-the day × substance) was used to detect differences among the trials. With the placebo, MFO was 0.25 ± 0.11 g/min in the morning and 0.24 ± 0.07 g/min in the evening. With p-synephrine, MFO was 0.26 ± 0.09 g/min in the morning and 0.21 ± 0.07 g/min in the evening. There was no main effect of substance (p = 0.349), time of day (p = 0.186) and the substance × time of day (p = 0.365) on MFO. Additionally, Fatmax was reached at a similar exercise intensity with the placebo (41.33 ± 8.34% VO2max in the morning and 44.38 ± 7.37% VO2max in the evening) and with p-synephrine (43.33 ± 7.24% VO2max in the morning and 45.00 ± 7.43% VO2max in the evening), irrespective of the time of day with no main effect of substance (p = 0.633), time of day (p = 0.191), or interaction (p = 0.580). In summary, the acute intake of 3 mg/kg of p-synephrine before exercise did not increase MFO and Fatmax, independently of the time of day, in female athletes. This indicates that the time of day is not a factor explaining the lack of effectiveness of this substance to enhance fat oxidation during aerobic exercise in women.

Maximal Fat Oxidation during Incremental Upper and Lower Body Exercise in Healthy Young Males.

The aim of this study is to determine the magnitude of maximal fat oxidation (MFO) during incremental upper and lower body exercise. Thirteen non-specifically trained male participants (19.3 ± 0.5 y, 78.1 ± 9.1 kg body mass) volunteered for this repeated-measures study, which had received university ethics committee approval. Participants undertook two incremental arm crank (ACE) and cycle ergometry (CE) exercise tests to volitional exhaustion. The first test for each mode served as habituation. The second test was an individualised protocol, beginning at 40% of the peak power output (POpeak) achieved in the first test, with increases of 10% POpeak until volitional exhaustion. Expired gases were recorded at the end of each incremental stage, from which fat and carbohydrate oxidation rates were calculated. MFO was taken as the greatest fat oxidation value during incremental exercise and expressed relative to peak oxygen uptake (%V˙O2peak). MFO was lower during ACE (0.44 ± 0.24 g·min-1) than CE (0.77 ± 0.31 g·min-1; respectively, p < 0.01) and occurred at a lower exercise intensity (53 ± 21 vs. 67 ± 18%V˙O2peak; respectively, p < 0.01). Inter-participant variability for MFO was greatest during ACE. These results suggest that weight loss programs involving the upper body should occur at lower exercise intensities than for the lower body.

Increased exogenous but unaltered endogenous carbohydrate oxidation with combined fructose-maltodextrin ingested at 120 g h-1 versus 90 g h-1 at different ratios.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to investigate whether carbohydrate ingestion during 3 h long endurance exercise in highly trained cyclists at a rate of 120 g h-1 in 0.8:1 ratio between fructose and glucose-based carbohydrates would result in higher exogenous and lower endogenous carbohydrate oxidation rates as compared to ingestion of 90 g h-1 in 1:2 ratio, which is the currently recommended approach for exercise of this duration. METHODS: Eleven male participants (V̇O2peak 62.6 ± 7 mL kg-1 min-1, gas exchange threshold (GET) 270 ± 17 W and Respiratory compensation point 328 ± 32 W) completed the study involving 4 experimental visits consisting of 3 h cycling commencing after an overnight fast at an intensity equivalent to 95% GET. During the trials they received carbohydrates at an average rate of 120 or 90 g h-1 in 0.8:1 or 1:2 fructose-maltodextrin ratio, respectively. Carbohydrates were naturally high or low in 13C stable isotopes enabling subsequent calculations of exogenous and endogenous carbohydrate oxidation rates. RESULTS: Exogenous carbohydrate oxidation rates were higher in the 120 g h-1 condition (120-180 min: 1.51 ± 0.22 g min-1) as compared to the 90 g h-1 condition (1.29 ± 0.16 g min-1; p = 0.026). Endogenous carbohydrate oxidation rates did not differ between conditions (2.15 ± 0.30 and 2.20 ± 0.33 g min-1 for 120 and 90 g h-1 conditions, respectively; p = 0.786). CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that carbohydrate ingestion at 120 g h-1 in 0.8:1 fructose-maltodextrin ratio as compared with 90 g h-1 in 1:2 ratio offers higher exogenous carbohydrate oxidation rates but no additional sparing of endogenous carbohydrates. Further studies should investigate potential performance effects of such carbohydrate ingestion strategies.

Comparison of energy expenditure and substrate oxidation between walking and running in men and women.

PURPOSE: The present study compared energy metabolism between walking and running at equivalent speeds during two incremental exercise tests. METHODS: Thirty four university students (18 males, 16 females) were recruited. Each participant completed two trials, consisting of walking (Walk) and running (Run) trials on different days, with 2-3 days apart. Exercise on a treadmill was started from initial stage of 3 min (3.0 k/m in Walk trial, 5.0 km/h in Run trial), and the speed for walking and running was progressively every minute by 0.5 km/h. The changes in metabolic variables, heart rate (HR), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during exercise were compared between the trials. RESULTS: Energy expenditure (EE) increased with speed in each trial. However, the Walk trial had a significantly higher EE than the Run trial at speeds exceeding 92 ± 2 % of the maximal walking speed (MWS, p < 0.01). Similarly, carbohydrate (CHO) oxidation was significantly higher in the Walk trial than in the Run trial at above 92 ± 2 %MWS in males (p < 0.001) and above 93 ± 1 %MWS in females (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that EE and CHO oxidation during walking increase non-linearly with speed, and walking at a fast speed causes greater metabolic responses than running at the equivalent speed in young participants.

Beyond the Calorie Paradigm: Taking into Account in Practice the Balance of Fat and Carbohydrate Oxidation during Exercise?

Recent literature shows that exercise is not simply a way to generate a calorie deficit as an add-on to restrictive diets but exerts powerful additional biological effects via its impact on mitochondrial function, the release of chemical messengers induced by muscular activity, and its ability to reverse epigenetic alterations. This review aims to summarize the current literature dealing with the hypothesis that some of these effects of exercise unexplained by an energy deficit are related to the balance of substrates used as fuel by the exercising muscle. This balance of substrates can be measured with reliable techniques, which provide information about metabolic disturbances associated with sedentarity and obesity, as well as adaptations of fuel metabolism in trained individuals. The exercise intensity that elicits maximal oxidation of lipids, termed LIPOXmax, FATOXmax, or FATmax, provides a marker of the mitochondrial ability to oxidize fatty acids and predicts how much fat will be oxidized over 45-60 min of low- to moderate-intensity training performed at the corresponding intensity. LIPOXmax is a reproducible parameter that can be modified by many physiological and lifestyle influences (exercise, diet, gender, age, hormones such as catecholamines, and the growth hormone-Insulin-like growth factor I axis). Individuals told to select an exercise intensity to maintain for 45 min or more spontaneously select a level close to this intensity. There is increasing evidence that training targeted at this level is efficient for reducing fat mass, sparing muscle mass, increasing the ability to oxidize lipids during exercise, lowering blood pressure and low-grade inflammation, improving insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity, reducing blood glucose and HbA1c in type 2 diabetes, and decreasing the circulating cholesterol level. Training protocols based on this concept are easy to implement and accept in very sedentary patients and have shown an unexpected efficacy over the long term. They also represent a useful add-on to bariatric surgery in order to maintain and improve its weight-lowering effect. Additional studies are required to confirm and more precisely analyze the determinants of LIPOXmax and the long-term effects of training at this level on body composition, metabolism, and health.