Phytocannabinoid profile and potency of cannabis resin (hashish) of northwest Himalayas of India.

Cannabis is one of the most consumed illicit drugs and the potency of cannabis products is of note due to health-related concerns. Hand-rubbed hashish is the ancient technique of extracting psychoactive resin from cannabis plants and is practiced in the Indian Himalayas. This study establishes the cannabinoid profile and potency of hand-rubbed hashish collected from 20 regions of the northwest Himalayas. Fifty-eight hashish samples were analyzed using a validated high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) method. Ten cannabinoids were quantified including acidic (THCA & CBDA), and neutral compounds (CBDA, THCV, CBD, CBG, CBN, Δ9-THC, Δ8-THC, and CBC). The mean concentration (w/w%) of Δ9-THC is 26%; THCA is 15% and THCTotal is 40% is observed in the studied hashish samples. The majority (70%) of the hashish samples were categorized in chemotype I with the THC:CBD:CBN ratio of 91:3:4, and the remaining 30% were categorized under chemotype II with the ratio of 76:15:8. Diverse qualities of hashish are produced in the studied regions as per the seed, plant selection, and skills of manual rubbing, which results in potency variations. The average difference between the least and highest potent hand-rubbed hashish of a region is 27 w/w% (THCTotal). The other studied non-psychoactive cannabinoids have a mean w/w% of <5%, followed by 6% of CBDA. It is concluded that the cultivated and wild cannabis fields in the northwest Himalayas belong to the drug-type cannabis subspecies. Hand-rubbed hashish holds traditional significance and impacts the current policies of legislation.

International property rights for Cannabis landraces and terroir products. The case of Moroccan Cannabis and hashish.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, the cannabis industry has evolved from a world defined by the simplicity and ubiquity of illegality of recreational drug cannabis to a world marked by the legal and geographic complexity of ongoing depenalisation, decriminalisation, and legalisation processes. Within this landscape where drug Cannabis plants and their many derivatives see their legal status change, Cannabis cultigens and end products are increasingly likely to becoming subject to protection by intellectual property rights. This article delves into the implications of these changes for traditional Cannabis farmers, particularly in the Global South, as they face economic and legal threats amidst global legalisation efforts. It examines the potential role of appellations of origin in protecting local Cannabis cultigens and end products, focusing on Moroccan Cannabis and hashish as a case study. METHODS: The text resorts to the treaties and agreements regulating international property rights and plant variety protection, but also to the concepts of terroir and landrace and their definitions, in order to determine, by way of treaty interpretation and conceptual analysis, what type of legal and economic protections can apply to Cannabis landraces and terroir products. The analysis is also based on previous empirical research published by the author. RESULTS: The text argues that appellations of origin are the best intellectual property protections possible for landraces and terroir products because what needs to be protected is not innovation and individual ownership, but tradition and collective ownership, and because appellations of origin are suitable collective intellectual property rights. It shows that appellations of origin are best suited to protect terroir products and landraces because their originality and distinctiveness are place-based originality and distinctiveness. CONCLUSION: The text concludes that appellations or origin offer the only existing intellectual property protection for preserving the distinctiveness of terroir cannabis products, and for landrace conservation. It acknowledges that neither appellations of origin nor existing plant variety protection laws can be legal forms of control of third parties' uses of landraces but that appellations of origin can help protect terroir products and landraces by way of their associated agro-ecosystems.

Progress in the analysis of phytocannabinoids by HPLC and UPLC (or UHPLC) during 2020-2023.

INTRODUCTION: Organic molecules that bind to cannabinoid receptors are known as cannabinoids. These molecules possess pharmacological properties similar to those produced by Cannabis sativa L. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC, also known as ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography, UHPLC) have become the most widely used analytical tools for detection and quantification of phytocannabinoids in various matrices. HPLC and UPLC (or UHPLC) are usually coupled to an ultraviolet (UV), photodiode array (PDA), or mass spectrometric (MS) detector. OBJECTIVE: To critically appraise the literature on the application of HPLC and UPLC (or UHPLC) methods for the analysis of phytocannabinoids published from January 2020 to December 2023. METHODOLOGY: An extensive literature search was conducted using Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar and published materials including relevant books. In various combinations, using cannabinoid in all combinations, cannabis, hemp, hashish, C. sativa, marijuana, analysis, HPLC, UHPLC, UPLC, and quantitative, qualitative, and quality control were used as the keywords for the literature search. RESULTS: Several HPLC- and UPLC (or UHPLC)-based methods for the analysis of phytocannabinoids were reported. While simple HPLC-UV or HPLC-PDA-based methods were common, the use of HPLC-MS, HPLC-MS/MS, UPLC (or UHPLC)-PDA, UPLC (or UHPLC)-MS, and UPLC (or UHPLC)-MS/MS was also reported. Applications of mathematical and computational models for optimization of protocols were noted. Pre-analyses included various environmentally friendly extraction protocols. CONCLUSION: During the last 4 years, HPLC and UPLC (or UHPLC) remained the main analytical tools for phytocannabinoid analysis in different matrices.

Child Maltreatment History, Deployment-Related Traumatic Events, and Past 12-Month Cannabis Use Among Veterans in Canada.

OBJECTIVE: Cannabis use among veterans in Canada is an understudied public health priority. The current study examined cannabis use prevalence and the relationships between child maltreatment histories and deployment-related traumatic events (DRTEs) with past 12-month cannabis use including sex differences among Canadian veterans. METHOD: Data were drawn from the 2018 Canadian Armed Forces Members and Veterans Mental Health Follow-up Survey (response rate 68.7%; veterans only n = 1,992). Five child maltreatment types and 9 types of DRTEs were assessed in relation to the past 12-month cannabis use. RESULTS: The prevalence of lifetime and past 12-month cannabis use was 49.4% and 16.7%, respectively. Females were less likely than males to report lifetime cannabis use (41.9% vs. 50.4%; odds ratio [OR] 0.71; 95% CI, - 0.59 to 0.86). No sex differences were noted for past 12-month cannabis use (14.1% vs. 17.0%; OR 0.80; 95% CI, 0.60 to 1.07). Physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, any child maltreatment, most individual DRTEs, and any DRTE were associated with increased odds of past 12-month cannabis use after adjusting for sociodemographic and military variables. Some models were attenuated and/or nonsignificant after further adjustments for mental disorders and chronic pain conditions. Sex did not statistically significantly moderate these relationships. Cumulative effects of having experienced both child maltreatment and DRTEs compared to DRTEs alone increased the odds of past 12-month cannabis use. Statistically significant interaction effects between child maltreatment history and DRTE on cannabis use were not found. CONCLUSIONS: Child maltreatment histories and DRTEs increased the likelihood of past 12-month cannabis use among Canadian veterans. A history of child maltreatment, compared to DRTEs, indicated a more robust relationship. Understanding the links between child maltreatment, DRTEs, and cannabis use along with mental disorders and chronic pain conditions is important for developing interventions and improving health outcomes among veterans.

Trends in Illicit Cannabis Potency based on the Analysis of Law Enforcement Seizures in the Southern Area of Rome.

Cannabis remains the most illicitly produced and consumed substance worldwide, and the average trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content in cannabis products (marijuana, hashish) has increased over time. This paper presents data about THC concentration in cannabis resin samples seized by law enforcement from 2015 to 2022 in the southern area of Rome (Italy). From 2015 to 2022, more than 1000 hashish samples were analyzed; the average THC content was 18.0% and dramatically increased from 13.7% (2015) to 27.1% (2022). The potency of THC in some samples characterized by unusual shape and color was higher than 24% and, in a few cases, higher than 40%. The age group most involved in seizures of cannabis resin concerned males aged between 15 and 36 years old. The spread of this phenomenon increases the risk of adverse health outcomes. Many observational studies compare the increased cannabis potency with the onset of psychosis, depression, anxiety and cannabis use disorders (CUDs), mainly in young adults. THC-potency monitoring provides data that can be helpful to create a network of communication and interaction between universities, and legislative and public health institutions to support education, awareness and surveillance related to cannabis abuse.

Laser-induced fluorescence spectroscopy of plant-based drugs: Opium and hashish provoking at 405 nm.

Here, the fluorescence properties of some plant-based drug samples are characterized using a coherent excitation source at 405 nm. The laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) spectroscopy is examined to analyze opium and hashish. In order to improve traditional fluorescence methods for better analysis of optically dense materials, we have proposed five characteristic parameters based on solvent densitometry assay as the fingerprints of drugs of interest. The signal emissions are recorded in terms of various drug concentrations, such that the best fitting over experimental data determines the fluorescence extinction (α) and self-quenching (k) coefficients according to the modified Beer-Lambert formalism. The typical α value is determined to be 0.30 and 0.15 mL/(cm∙mg) for opium and hashish, respectively. Similarly, typical k is obtained 0.390 and 1.25 mL/(cm∙mg), respectively. Furthermore, the concentration at max fluorescence intensity (Cp) is determined for opium and hashish to be 1.8 and 1.3 mg/mL, respectively. Results reveal that opium and hashish benefit their own characteristic fluorescence parameters to discriminate those illicit substances promptly using the present method.

Substance abuse among university students in Egypt: prevalence and correlates.

BACKGROUND: Drug abuse is a global challenge with harmful effects on health, wealth and wellbeing of nations. University students report more habitual use of marijuana, cocaine, hallucinogens and illicit drugs than noncollege students report. AIMS: To identify the prevalence of tobacco use, alcohol and drug abuse and to identify some factors associated with drug abuse. METHODS: A cross-sectional study recruiting 2552 students from all faculties hosted by Kafr El-Sheikh University during the academic year 2018-2019. Data were collected using a structured self-administered questionnaire. RESULTS: The prevalence of current drug abuse was 8.9% for cigarette smoking, followed by tranquilizers (4.3%), hashish (3.6%), alcohol (2.7%), bhang (1.4%) and tramadol (1.0%). Men reported significantly greater use of cigarettes, alcohol, tramadol, hashish and bhang than women. Students of practical colleges were found to smoke cigarettes and abuse hashish significantly more than their peers in other colleges. Risk factors associated with drug abuse were mainly related to gender and college type. CONCLUSION: There is a need to design and implement programmes to raise awareness and provide supportive services for prevention and management of drug abuse among university students tailored according to their needs.

Hashish seizures in Algeria over the 2019-2020 period: The rise of potent hashish hybrids.

In Algeria, hashish is by far the most common illicit drug. This study explores Algerian hashish over a two-year period (2019-2020). A total of 2583 hashish samples from 1707 seizures for a total quantity of 108 tons were analyzed using a validated high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection method (HPLC-DAD). The yearly arithmetic mean tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentration shows relative stability-18.67% in 2019 and 19.03% in 2020 with an overall mean THC content of 18.87% and standard deviation of 10.99%. High-potency hashish (THC content > 20%) is by far the most predominant type, representing almost 50% of the total Algerian hashish seizures (mean and median around 29%). The overall mean of cannabidiol (CBD) was 2.45%, and 12% of the total studied seizures were of very low CBD concentration (CBD content<1%). Three distinct hashish chemotypes were identified: Chemotype I described the traditional Moroccan hashish with THC content ranging from 0% to 16%, Chemotype II hashish included most of the seizures and characterized by THC content ranging from 16% to 30%, and Chemotype III was characterized by hashish potency higher than 30% and very low CBD content. The identified chemotypes I, II, and III were characterized in a ternary plot, and the relative contents (THC:CBD:CBN) were about 67%:29%:4%, 88%:9%:3%, and 96%:2%:2%, respectively.

Cannabis-like activity of Zornia latifolia Sm. detected in vitro on rat cortical neurons: major role of the flavone syzalterin.

Zornia latifolia is a plant suspected to possess psychoactive properties and marketed as a marijuana substitute under the name 'maconha brava'. In this study, the effects of fractions obtained from a 2-propanol extract of aerial portions of the plant were determined by multielectrode array (MEA) analyses on cultured networks of rat cortical neurons. Lipophilic (ZL_lipo, mainly containing flavonoid aglycones), and hydrophilic (ZL_hydro, mainly containing flavonoid glycosides) fractions were initially obtained from the raw extract. ZL_lipo significantly inhibited mean firing rate (MFR) and mean bursting rate (MBR) of MEA recordings, while ZL_hydro induced no inhibition. Column chromatography separation of ZL_lipo yielded five fractions (ZL1-ZL5), among which ZL1 induced the strongest MFR and MBR inhibition. NMR and HPLC-MS analyses of ZL1 revealed the prevalence of the common flavonoids genistein (1) and apigenin (2) (in about a 1:1 ratio), and the presence of the rare flavone syzalterin (6,8-dimethylapigenin) (3) as a minor compound. Exposures of MEA to apigenin and genistein standards did not induce the MFR and MBR inhibition observed with ZL1, whereas exposure to syzalterin standard or to a 1:9 mixture syzalterin-genistein induced effects similar to ZL1. These inhibitory effects were comparable to that observed with high-THC hashish, possibly accounting for the plant psychoactive properties. Data indicate that Z. latifolia, currently marketed as a free herbal product, should be subjected to measures of control. In addition, syzalterin showed distinctive pharmacological properties, opening the way to its possible exploitation as a neuroactive drug.

Novel Solventless Extraction Technique to Preserve Cannabinoid and Terpenoid Profiles of Fresh Cannabis Inflorescence.

Despite its use by humans for thousands of years, the technology of cannabis usage and extraction is still evolving. Given that the primary pharmacological compounds of interest are cannabinoid and terpenoids found in greatest abundance in capitate glandular trichomes of unfertilized female inflorescences, it is surprising that older techniques of hashish making have received less technological advancement. The purpose of this study was to employ organically grown cannabis and to isolate pure trichomes from freshly picked flowers via exposure to vapor from solid CO2, commonly known as "dry ice", followed by their isolation via sifting through a 150 µ screens while maintaining the cold chain. Biochemical analysis was undertaken on fresh flower, frozen-sifted flower by-products, treated trichomes (Kryo-Kief™), dried flower, dried sifted flower by-product and dried kief. The dry ice process successfully concentrated cannabinoid content as high as 60.7%, with corresponding concentration and preservation of monoterpenoids encountered in fresh flower that are usually lost during the conventional cannabis drying and curing process. The resulting dried sifted flower by-product after dry ice processing remains a usable commodity. This approach may be of interest to pharmaceutical companies and supplement producers pursuing cannabis-based medicine development with an eye toward full synergy of ingredients harnessing the entourage effect.

Prevalence and associated risk factors of cannabinoid abuse among Egyptian university students: a cross-sectional study.

Global surveys have highlighted rise in consumption of cannabinoids among residents of both developed and developing countries. Cannabinoids cause severe damage to the cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory, and renal systems, and have been linked with several deaths. Despite these adverse health effects, the use of cannabinoids has rapidly increased. This work seeks to estimate the prevalence of cannabinoid abuse among Egyptian university students and explore the associated risk factors. A cross-sectional study was carried out over 3 months (1st of July-1st of October 2020) and included 2380 students. Participants were subjected to a pre-designed self-administered questionnaire that included demographic data, Addiction Severity Index, and Depression Anxiety Stress Scale. Among the participating students, 4.9% of them reported cannabinoid abuse and 41% reported smoking cigarettes. The most used substances were hashish (96.5%), Strox (41.3%), Bhang (34.4%), voodoo (34.4%), and Tramadol (31.1%). Gender and social status were also significantly related to rates of substances abuse; most illicit drug users were males (93.1%), and the majority was of low (41.3%) or moderate (50.8%) socioeconomic status. The most significant risk factors associated with substance use were positive history of family conflict (OR=6.48; CI95%: 5.08-8.64, p<0.001), encouragement by peers (OR=2.95; CI95%: 1.73-5.05, p<0.001), male gender (OR=5.46; CI95%: 2.40-12.44, p=0.001), positive history of child abuse (OR=2.85; CI95%: 1.96-3.04, p=0.001), having a stay-at-home mother (OR= 1.56, CI95%: 1.19-2.04, p=0.001), living in an urban area (OR=2.22; CI95%: 1.53-5.0, p=0.002), and positive family history of substance use (OR=1.98; CI95%: 1.48-2.08, p=0.045). This study emphasizes the possible significant rise in substance use among university students. Awareness campaigns should target both students and student families.

A mixed-methods study to inform the clarity and accuracy of cannabis-use and cannabis-tobacco co-use survey measures.

BACKGROUND: Legalization of medical and recreational cannabis in US states has been accompanied by increases in availability, acceptability, and diversity in methods of cannabis use, as well as an increase in devices and methods for cannabis-tobacco co-use. Updated and specific survey measures of cannabis and cannabis-tobacco co-use are needed. METHODS: We employed a mixed-methods approach to identify sources of specification and measurement error in cannabis and cannabis-tobacco co-use measures. We surveyed and interviewed 36 young adult (age 18-29) cannabis and tobacco co-users in California (2017-2018), triangulated with document analysis of online cannabis websites and forums. We investigated how survey reports of cannabis use and cannabis-tobacco co-use compared to narrative descriptions provided during in-depth interviews. We identify key strategies for researchers collecting self-reported survey data to enhance accuracy and comprehensiveness of measures. FINDINGS: Potential sources of survey error included: broad variation in cannabinoid content and concentration, inconsistent interpretation of questions between participants and researchers (e.g. blunts were not considered co-use), and substantial variation in dosage within and between products. No evidence of survey recall bias or response editing was detected. CONCLUSION: To enhance survey accuracy, we recommend surveys specify which cannabis delivery methods and forms are included and excluded in each measure, differentiate between cannabis products, and explicitly include or exclude CBD product use.

Moreau de Tours: organicism and subjectivity. Part 2: Moreau as psychopathologist.

These two articles analyse the importance of J.J. Moreau de Tours' work and its influence on the development of descriptive psychopathology from the mid-nineteenth century to the present. The first article focused on biographical aspects and presented Moreau's main works in their social and cultural contexts. This second article critically analyses Moreau's contributions from different perspectives: epistemological, psychopathological, clinical, therapeutic, and it also discusses his role as a public figure.

Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A, the precursor to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).

While Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA-A) has been reported to be difficult to crystallize and/or amorphous, we have obtained THCA-A in a pure crystalline form by extraction of marijuana and selective fractionation with liquid CO2. THCA-A (systematic name: 1-hydroxy-6,6,9-trimethyl-3-pentyl-6a,7,8,10a-tetrahydro-6H-benzo[c]isochromene-2-carboxylic acid, C22H30O4) crystallizes in the orthorhombic space group P212121, with Z = 8 and Z' = 2. The two independent molecules are related by a pseudo-twofold axis centered between the two -CO2H groups, but the conformations of the two -C5H11 chains are quite different (tgt and ttg; t is trans and g is gauche). The carboxylate groups form an intermolecular R22(8) hydrogen-bonded ring; the two C2O2 carboxylate planes are twisted out of the planes of the attached arene rings in opposite directions by 13.59 (8) and 18.92 (8)°, respectively, with a resultant interplanar angle of 28.89 (8)°. Each molecule also has an intramolecular S(6) hydrogen-bond motif between the ortho -OH group and the dihydropyran-ring O atom. Other conformational aspects of the two independent molecules are quite similar to those found in the previously determined structure of THCA-B. THCA-A has shown promise in a number of medical applications. Demonstration of the crystallinity and details of the crystal structure are expected to provide a standard point of departure for chemical and medical experiments.

Moreau de Tours: organicism and subjectivity. Part 1: Life and work.

This is the first of two articles analysing the importance of J.J. Moreau de Tours' work and its influence on the development of descriptive psychopathology from the mid-nineteenth century to the present. Part 1 focuses on biographical aspects and presents Moreau's main works in their social and cultural context, with special emphasis on his book Du Hachisch et de l'Aliénation mentale, published in 1845. The second article will concentrate on Moreau as a psychopathologist.

Pediatric cannabis poisonings in France: more and more frequent and severe.

CONTEXT: Accidental pediatric cannabis poisonings are an incidental effect of cannabis use. The average THC content of cannabis resin and the number of consumers are rising sharply in the USA and in most European countries. The objective is to study the evolution of prevalence and severity of pediatric exposures to cannabis in France. METHOD: This is a retrospective observational study of cases detected by French poison centers between January 1st 2010 and December 31st 2017 of cannabis exposure by ingestion in children aged ten or younger. The clinical severity was assessed using the Poisoning Severity Score (PSS). The criteria used for assessing the overall severity were as follows: PSS ≥ 2, admission to pediatric intensive care, coma and respiratory depression (univariate and multivariate logistic regression). RESULTS: A total of 965 cases of poisoning were covered. The annual average number of cases was 93 between 2010 and 2014 and 167 between 2015 and 2017. The median age was 15 months (range, 6 months-10 years) and the sex ratio was 1:1. The form of cannabis ingested was mainly resin (75%). During the period covered by the study, 26.1% of children (n = 252) presented with a PSS ≥ 2, 4.5% (n = 43) coma, 4.6% (n = 44) with respiratory depression and 11.7% (n = 113) were admitted into pediatric intensive care (out of 819 hospitalizations). No fatal cases were reported. In comparison to the 2010-2014 period, the length of hospital stays was significantly higher (p < 0.0001) and the comas were significantly deeper (lower score on the Glasgow coma scale, p < 0.005) in 2015-2017. Following adjustments made for the sex, age and weight of the children, the data show that the severity of the poisonings was significantly greater in 2015-2017 in terms of PSS score, the number of comas and monitoring in intensive care (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The data indicates a significant increase in the number of cases of pediatric exposure to cannabis and a rise in the seriousness of poisonings between 2010 and 2017.

History of cannabis and the endocannabinoid system
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This article retraces the story of cannabis from the earliest contacts of humans with the plant to its subsequent global expansion, its medicinal uses, and the discovery of the endocannabinoid system in the 20th century. Cannabis was attested to around 12 000 years ago near the Altai Mountains in Central Asia, and since then, cannabis seeds have accompanied the migration of nomadic peoples. Records of the medicinal use of cannabis appear before the Common Era in China, Egypt, and Greece (Herodotus), and later in the Roman empire (Pliny the Elder, Dioscorides, Galen). In the 19th century, orientalists like Silvestre de Sacy, and Western physicians coming into contact with Muslim and Indian cultures, like O'Shaughnessy and Moreau de Tours, introduced the medicinal use of cannabis into Europe. The structure of the main psychoactive phytocannabinoid, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), was determined in Israel by Mechoulam and Gaoni in 1964. This discovery opened the gate for many of the subsequent developments in the field of endocannabinoid system (ECS) research. The advances in the scientific knowledge of the ECS place the debate on cannabis liberalization in a new context.
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Este artículo describe la historia de la cannabis desde los primeros contactos de los humanos con la planta hasta su posterior expansión mundial, sus usos medicinales y el descubrimiento del sistema de endocannabinoides en el siglo XX. Hay testimonios de la cannabis desde hace unos 12,000 años, cerca de las montañas de Altai en Asia Central, y desde entonces las semillas de cannabis acompañaron la migración de los pueblos nómades. Los registros del uso medicinal de la cannabis aparecen antes de nuestra era en China, Egipto y Grecia (Herodoto), y más tarde en el imperio romano (Plinio el Viejo, Dioscórides, Galeno). En el siglo XIX, los orientalistas como Silvestre de Sacy y los médicos occidentales que entraron en contacto con las culturas musulmana e india, como O'Shaughnessy y Moreau de Tours, introdujeron el uso medicinal de la cannabis en Europa. La estructura del principal fitocannabinoide psicoactivo, el THC, fue identificada por Mechoulam y Gaoni en Israel en 1964. Este descubrimiento abrió la puerta para muchos de los desarrollos posteriores en el campo de la investigación del sistema de endocannabinoides (SEC). Los avances en el conocimiento científico del SEC colocan el debate acerca de la liberalización de la cannabis en un nuevo contexto.

Cet article décrit l'histoire du cannabis depuis les premiers contacts de l'espèce humaine avec la plante jusqu'à son expansion mondiale ultérieure, ses utilisations médicinales et la découverte du système endocannabinoïde au XXe siècle. La trace du cannabis a été retrouvée il y a environ 12 000 ans près des montagnes de l'Altaï en Asie centrale et depuis, les graines de cannabis ont suivi la migration des peuples nomades. Son usage médicinal apparaît avant notre ère en Chine, en Égypte et en Grèce (Hérodote), et plus tard dans l'empire romain (Pline l'Ancien, Dioscoride, Galien). Au XIXe siècle, des orientalistes comme Silvestre de Sacy et des médecins occidentaux en contact avec les cultures musulmanes et indiennes, comme O'Shaughnessy et Moreau de Tours, ont introduit son recours à des fins médicales en Europe. En 1964 en Israël, Mechoulam et Gaoni, en identifiant la structure du principal phytocannabinoïde psychoactif, le THC, ouvrent la voie à de nombreux développements dans le domaine de la recherche sur le système endocannabinoïde (SEC). Sur la base de ces progrès, le débat sur la libéralisation du cannabis se poursuit dans un nouveau contexte.

Characterization of Algerian-Seized Hashish Over Eight Years (2011-2018). Part I: Physical Categorization.

Data on the physical characteristics of North African hashish are scarce. This article exploits hashish seizure data collected over an 8-year period (2011-2018) in Algeria in order to establish a physical profile of North African hashish. The collected data were subjected to statistical analysis in order to characterize the three main forms in which North African hashish is packaged, namely hashish bags, hashish packets, and hashish units (slab bars). The study revealed that 82% of hashish bags weigh 25 kg that hashish bags are made either as a handbag or as a back bag that they are most often wrapped with woven plastic. Two hashish bag configurations were identified-Bag-Packet-Unit (79%) and Bag-Unit (21%)-and 81% of the total studied bags featured logos. Hashish packets contain the units, which are wrapped with three to five different types of packaging to constitute packets of 0.5 kg (65%) or 1 kg (32%), with two different configurations including 100- or 250-g units. Hashish packets are mainly covered with adhesive tape, and only 18% of them feature inscriptions. Hashish units are found in three different shapes: slab bar (most common), soap bar, and egg-shaped bar. Sixty-five percent of the North African hashish slab bars have a weight of 100 g; other weights are 250 g (20%), 90 g (10%), and 200 g (2%). Most of the 90-100 g units have a light brown color, and 200-250 g units are dark brown in color. Sixty-four percent of hashish units contain logos. Five logo classes were identified: letters (37%), numbers (27%), symbols (23%), animals (11%), and, more recently, "paper logos" at just 2%, exclusively reserved for high-quality hashish and entirely intended for the European market. The findings of this work allow for the establishment of a profiling platform of hashish seizures in this region and can be generalized to all countries that report this region as the primary source of seized hashish within their territory.

Characterization of Algerian-Seized Hashish Over Eight Years (2011-2018). Part II: Chemical Categorization.

In Algeria, large quantities of hashish are seized every year. This study aimed to investigate the total content of major cannabinoids in the illicit seized hashish in Algeria over an 8-year period (2011-2018) in order to establish the chemical profile of North African hashish. A total of 3265 hashish samples were analyzed using a validated high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) method, allowing the simultaneous quantification of both the acidic and the neutral forms of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN). The results revealed a slight upward trend in the mean THC content, from 7.0% in 2011 to 9.4% in 2018, with an overall mean value of 8.4%. The overall means of CBD and CBN content were 3.5% and 0.8%, respectively. The number of high-potency hashish samples gradually increased to reach 6% in 2018. Two distinct hashish chemotypes were identified: the highly populated chemotype II, corresponding to the traditional medium-potency hashish ([THC + CBN]/CBD ~ 2.16), and chemotype I, containing hashish samples of relatively high THC levels and low levels of CBD (ratio ~ 4.90). Both chemotypes I and II were characterized in the ternary plot, and the proportions (THC:CBD:CBN) were about 85%:13%:2% and 60%:35%:5%, respectively.

Is there an interest for hair analysis in non-intentional pediatric cannabis intoxication?

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The incorporation of drugs in the hair of young children differs from that of adults and the metabolism of cannabis cannot be the same. Our primary objective was to analyze the distribution of the different cannabinoids in children's hair samples. The secondary objective was to correlate the intensity of toxic environmental exposure to cannabinoid metabolite levels. METHODS: This was a prospective, single-center, observational pilot study of a pediatric cohort. Included subjects were all children less than 6 years of age admitted to a tertiary pediatric emergency unit for proven cannabis intoxication during the reference period. A hair strand was sampled within 12h of emergency admission. RESULTS: Forty-one pediatric patients were consecutively enrolled. Hair analysis showed that 34 children were positive for Δ9-THC (range 0.06-284.4ng/mg); 41 % of them were also positive for THC-COOH (range 0.26-2.76pg/mg). Depending on the Δ9-THC concentration (>1ng/mg), 39 % of the children could be considered exposed to an intensely toxic environment. The rate of THC-COOH detection steadily increased from 2015 to 2018 (18 %, 40 %, 50 %, 58 % for each consecutive year). Children intensely exposed weighed less on admission (p=0.02), had more comatose presentations (p=0.02), and more previous social issues (75 % versus 12 %, OR 22.0, p=0.0002). CONCLUSION: Hair testing in this context indirectly shows the intensity of children's toxic environmental exposure by the cannabinoid metabolite threshold. This was very helpful during the collegial examination of the toddlers' environment and led to a full investigation and to appropriate decisions concerning social measures.