When missing becomes murder: An analysis of missing-femicide cases from the Republic of Ireland.

Many femicide cases are initially reported as missing persons to the police. Women who go missing have a greater risk of being a victim of homicide. This study explores the circumstances surrounding the disappearance and killing of women and girls in the Republic of Ireland from 1962 to 2023. A total of fifty-four cases were analysed, 52 cases were homicides. Most femicides occurred during 1990-1999 (n = 13; 24%) and 2000-2009 (n = 17; 32%). Twenty-five victims knew the offender and the leading cause of death was strangulation with 27 cases. Dumping/leaving the body on open ground with little or no concealment was the predominant method of disposal. The leading risk factors were the engagement of the victim in a fight or row before disappearance and domestic violence. The 'suicide narrative' should be treated with extreme caution in the disappearance of women.

A bibliometric analysis of research trends for missing persons globally and in East Asia from 2000 to 2021.

A bibliometric analysis was performed to explore the current research status and development trends for missing persons globally and in East Asia and to identify research hotspots and frontiers relating to this topic. A search was conducted to identify relevant literature on missing persons using the Web of Science Core Collection database for the period 2000-2021. Subsequently, a knowledge map was constructed using CiteSpace software to perform a visual analysis of the distribution of authors and institutions, journals, and national/regional distribution; citation frequency; high-frequency keywords; and emerging research hotspots. The results showed firstly that discussions on missing persons and related topics in East Asia are held at the regional scale. There is a paucity of research on this topic, which has been conducted on a limited scale, lacks depth and possibly innovation, and entails limited discussion in this region. Secondly, there is a lack of social science research on missing persons and related topics worldwide. Thirdly, relevant research in East Asia should continue to preserve its own characteristics, effectively addressing current issues and enabling more people to participate in social science-oriented discussions focusing on the topic of missing persons. This approach provides a promising direction for pursuing the sustainable development of the topic of missing persons. Key points: The strengths and weaknesses of current research on missing persons in East Asia were identified by comparing the respective literatures on missing persons and related topics in East Asia and worldwide during the period 2000-2021.Bibliometric analysis was performed using CiteSpace visual charts to explore keywords, authorship and co-authorship, intercountry collaboration, and other relevant co-citationities.Insights were obtained on current research breakthroughs relating to the topic of missing persons, and cutting-edge social science research on this topic was identified.

Managing large volume data sets in the process of identifying missing persons: Contributions from the International Commission on Missing Persons.

The process of locating and identifying missing persons presents a complex challenge that hinges on the collection and comparison of diverse data sets. This commentary offers an overview of some of the difficulties and considerations associated with data management in the context of large-scale missing person identifications. Such complexities include the uniqueness of each disaster event, the response time to the event, the variable quality and quantity of data, and the involvement of numerous stakeholders, all of which contribute to the intricacies of data management. In addition, the paramount considerations of privacy and ethical standards further compound these challenges, especially when dealing with sensitive information such as genetic data. This commentary describes the integrated Data Management System (iDMS) developed by the International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) as one example of a comprehensive, freely available solution for data collection, storage, protection, and analysis in missing person cases. The various advantages of the system are discussed, including the system's interoperability among the diverse array of stakeholders involved. While the iDMS streamlines data management processes and therefore represents a significant advancement in the field of missing person identification, it is concluded that the pending issue extends beyond the software tools to encompass the lack of political will among stakeholders to collaborate there remains a pressing need for all stakeholders involved in the identification process to commit to a mechanism that facilitates compatibility and interoperability if different tools are used in disaster victim identification (DVI) scenarios.

Transcending time: the forensic anthropological case study of three unidentified transgender women in Italy in the early 1990s.

In forensic anthropology, the estimation of skeletal sex results in a dichotomous outcome: male or female. This poses challenges when dealing with transgender individuals. Italy has the highest rate per capita of transgender murders, making their identification a compelling issue. This study presents three cases of unidentified skeletal remains of transgender women (MtF) that underwent autopsies in the 1990s at the Institute of Legal Medicine of Milan. The transgender status of the individuals was determined from the autopsy records which indicated the co-existence of breast implants and male genitalia. The biological profile was created by estimating sex, age, ancestry, and stature, and the bones were investigated looking for evidence of Facial Feminization Surgery (FFS). Anthropological estimations revealed that the skeletons belong to male, adults, European individuals, between 164 and 184 cm. Fragmented gelatinous masses were found in association with two skeletons, which were interpreted as remnants of breast implants. In two cases, signs of remodeling of the cortical surface were observed on the zygomatic bones, although the bone marks observed here were not specific enough to link them to FFS. Despite some limitations, this study highlights the need for greater awareness among practitioners about this limitedly addressed issue, advocating for a more inclusive forensic anthropology that strives to improve methods and interpretation of evidence for the identification of transgender individuals.

Operationalisation of the ForenSeq® Kintelligence Kit for Australian unidentified and missing persons casework.

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping technologies can generate investigative leads for human remains identification, including estimation of biological sex, biogeographical ancestry (BGA), externally visible characteristics (EVCs), identity, uniparental lineage and extended kinship. The ForenSeq® Kintelligence Kit provides forensic laboratories with the ability to apply this suite of genetic tools to forensic samples using one panel targeting 10,230 SNPs (including 56 ancestry-informative, 24 phenotype-informative, 94 identity-informative, 106 X chromosome, 85 Y chromosome and 9867 kinship-informative SNPs) sequenced on the MiSeq FGx® Sequencing System. The ForenSeq® Kintelligence Kit has been internally validated, optimised and operationalised by the Australian Federal Police National DNA Program for Unidentified and Missing Persons (AFP Program) for coronial casework. The internal validation was conducted according to the Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods guidelines (excluding mixture analysis), focussing on sample types typically encountered in human remains identification casework, such as bones, teeth, nail, blood and hair. The workflow was optimised for a high throughput library preparation and sequencing workflow, and additional analytical thresholds were developed to improve genotyping accuracy for low DNA input samples. Additionally, the genetic intelligence generated from the kit was compared to the self-declared biological sex, EVCs and BGA of the DNA donors to assess concordance. The kit was able to produce high quality SNP profiles from 1.0 ng down to 0.1 ng of DNA, with high repeatability and reproducibility, and minimal background noise. The prediction accuracy for biological sex (95%), hair colour (58%), eye colour (74%) and BGA inferences (consistent: 74%; partially consistent: 10%; inconclusive: 16%) was determined based on self-declared data. Additionally, SNP profiles from a volunteer family group of ten related individuals were uploaded to GEDmatch PRO™ to assess kinship accuracy. The kit was capable of detecting (97%) and accurately classifying (90%) genetic relationships spanning from first to fifth degree. The Kintelligence Kit provides the AFP Program with a robust and reliable genetic intelligence tool for unidentified and missing persons investigations, which has been designed to sequence multiple challenging samples in a single multiplexed assay using existing laboratory instrumentation.

Public/family concerns for providing DNA in missing persons cases: Paper 2: The main concerns raised and implications for policing policy.

Identification of unidentified human remains, and long-term missing persons (LTMP) is imperative, allowing for missing persons to be reunited with their families, which could provide closure to families experiencing ongoing ambiguity surrounding the situation. However, identification remains problematic for several reasons, including the absence of DNA provision in the investigation. The research reported here is the second in a two-part series exploring public/family support for providing DNA in LTMP cases. In the first study, quantitative results showed that participants had concerns when asked if they thought there would be implications for a person providing DNA to police in LTMP cases. The aim of this second study was to explore further using qualitative methods the nuances and themes underpinning concerns for providing DNA in LTMP cases. Participants described their concerns about providing DNA in four hypothetical LTMP case scenarios (a child, an adult with dementia, a runaway 19-year-old adolescent, and an estranged adult). Through thematic content analysis, ten themes were identified. Nine themes run across all four LTMP case scenarios. The tenth theme was only observed in two scenarios; cases involving adolescents with a history of runaway, and in cases involving adults estranged from their family. Results showed public concerns differed according to LTMP case circumstances. Key findings point to public education about how DNA is used in LTMP investigations, the applicable legislation relating to police use of DNA in investigations and increasing public awareness around the benefits of DNA use in LTMP investigations. Potentional policy options are discussed that could guide the future development of nuanced police practice in different types of LTMP cases.

Alternative workflows for identifying transnational missing persons.

Mass migration and migrant death at the U.S. southern border highlight the disconnectedness of the systems for transnational decedent identifications. Death investigation cases in Texas face delays and barriers at all stages of an investigation. Additionally, fragmentation of DNA databases exacerbate challenges in comparing genetic samples from unidentified human remains (UHR) and families of the missing. We sought to pilot alternative workflows for processing UHR and family reference samples (FRS) for the identification of probable migrant decedents. Primarily using Rapid DNA, but also accredited non-CODIS DNA laboratories, the piloted approaches were conducted in parallel to existing medicolegal workflows under the relevant case jurisdictional guidance. Our data show that Rapid DNA is a valid path for anthropology laboratories to support identification hypotheses and that accredited non-CODIS forensic and genetic laboratories also can support families to identify remains, especially when families reside outside of the United States.

Monitoring sewer systems to detect the eDNA of missing persons and persons of interest.

The paper proposes a theoretical framework for using eDNA detection devices to locate missing persons, wanted criminals, and persons of interest in densely populated areas by monitoring sewer water. The proposed system includes a computer application to enter information on missing targets, and the data collected by the system can be used to narrow down their location for rescue or apprehension. The paper investigates eDNA persistence, sewer water studies, and current eDNA and DNA analysis tools to formulate a research concept. The limitations of the concept are mentioned, and it is suggested that collaboration between a large university and a leading DNA analysis equipment manufacturer is needed to custom-build eDNA detection devices to fulfill the requirements of the concept. Eventually, manufacturing costs will drive down the initial and nationwide adoption costs of the system.

Exploring the Risk of Resulting in Homicide and Suicide in Spanish Missing Person Cases.

The study explores in depth the relationship between missing persons' psychosocial and criminological characteristics/circumstances and violent-fatal outcomes (suicide and homicide). A relational analytical explicative study of 929 cases and controls was designed using a retrospective and stratified design. Data gathering was conducted through the content analysis of judicial and police information, as well as the development of psychological autopsy techniques and semi-structured interviews with the persons involved in the missing person cases including offenders in prison. Bivariate and multivariate statistical techniques were utilised for analyses. The findings showed that there are different risk and protective factors which can distinguish between good state of health, suicide, and homicide outcomes. This research entails implications for prevention and police risk assessment system.

Recognizability of Demographically Altered Computerized Facial Approximations in an Automated Facial Recognition Context for Potential Application in Unidentified Persons Data Repositories.

This study examined the recognizability of demographically altered facial approximations for potential utility in unidentified persons tracking systems. Five computer-generated approximations were generated for each of 26 African male participants using the following demographic parameters: (i) African male (true demographics), (ii) African female, (iii) Caucasian male, (iv) Asian male, and (v) Hispanic male. Overall, 62% of the true demographic facial approximations for the 26 African male participants examined were matched to a corresponding life photo within the top 50 images of a candidate list generated from an automated blind search of an optimally standardized gallery of 6159 photographs. When the African male participants were processed as African females, the identification rate was 50%. In contrast, less congruent identification rates were observed when the African male participants were processed as Caucasian (42%), Asian (35%), and Hispanic (27%) males. The observed results suggest that approximations generated using the opposite sex may be operationally informative if sex is unknown. The performance of approximations generated using alternative ancestry assignments, however, was less congruent with the performance of the true demographic approximation (African male) and may not yield as operationally constructive data as sex-altered approximations.

Optimizing coastal exhumation strategies: The casework of the Committee on Missing Persons in Cyprus (2006-2022).

This paper reports on coastal exhumations performed during 2006-2022, under the framework of the Committee on Missing Persons in Cyprus (CMP) humanitarian identification programme. CMP archaeologists investigated 217 coastal locations and recovered skeletal remains on 44 occasions. Challenging environmental conditions required a customized exhumation plan, which could be executed swiftly without compromising operational integrity or standards. The author performed a retrospective analysis to propose an optimized strategy, which includes a survey, exhumation, digital documentation, and post-processing components, with the aim of minimizing the effects of adverse environmental conditions. The proposed strategy is based on scientific standards and observations in the field; it can satisfy the needs of a humanitarian or criminal investigation if appropriate measures are taken to uphold legislative and forensic standards. The author also discussed the taphonomic effects of coastal erosion and wave activity in tandem with exhumation recommendations to assist forensic practitioners involved in similar investigations.

Native Missing Persons Cases Will Not be Solved by Police Alone: The Case for "Missing Persons Advocates".

This study explored the potential role of victim advocacy in Native American missing person cases. Interviews with 25 tribal and non-tribal victim/social service providers were conducted to assess their perspectives on the factors which make Native Americans vulnerable to going missing, the barriers and challenges regarding reporting and investigating missing persons, as well as how victim/social service providers might better support the families of missing persons. Findings suggest that advocates perceive that responding to and offering services for Native families who experience a missing loved one will be extremely difficult because of the intersection of isolation, poverty, and jurisdictional complexities among tribal lands, combined with social service providers and law enforcement officers' lack of resources and training regarding cultural sensitivity. At the same time, advocates suggest that additional training and resources could help overcome many of these barriers and see a role for victim service providers in responding to missing and murdered Native American persons. Implications and suggestions for practice are discussed.

Public and family support and concerns for providing DNA to law enforcement in long-term missing person cases.

The identification of long-term missing persons and unidentified human remains is a global challenge. Many people stay on missing persons registers, with unidentified human remains stored for extended periods in mortuaries around the world. Research exploring public and/or family support for providing DNA in long-term missing persons cases is scarce. The aims of this study were to examine whether trust in police predicted the level of support for providing DNA and explore public/family support and concerns for providing DNA in such cases. Trust in police was measured through two widely used empirical attitude scales; "The Measures of Police Legitimacy and Procedural Justice". Support and concerns for giving DNA were measured through four hypothetical missing persons case scenarios. The results showed more positive attitudes towards police legitimacy and procedural justice significantly predicted support, with the percentage level of positive support across the four case types as follows: cases involving a long-term missing child (89%), elderly adult with dementia (83%), young adult with a history of runaway (76%), with the lowest level of support for an adult with an estranged family (73%). Participants also reported more concerns about providing DNA when the missing person circumstances involved family estrangement. Understanding levels of public/family support and concerns around providing DNA to police in missing persons cases is vital to ensure that DNA collection practices reflect what the public/family support and, wherever possible, alleviate public concerns.

The Ambiguous Loss Inventory Plus (ALI+): Introduction of a Measure of Psychological Reactions to the Disappearance of a Loved One.

BACKGROUND: The disappearance of a significant person is an ambiguous loss due to the persistent uncertainty about the whereabouts of the person. Measures specifically capturing the psychological consequences of ambiguous loss are lacking. Therefore, this study aimed to develop the Ambiguous Loss Inventory Plus (ALI+) and evaluated its suitability for use with relatives of missing persons. METHODS: ALI+ items were generated based on established measures for prolonged grief symptoms and literature on psychological responses to ambiguous loss. Eight relatives of missing persons (three refugees, five non-refugees) and seven international experts on ambiguous loss rated all items in terms of understandability and relevance on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very well). RESULTS: On average, the comprehensibility of the items was rated as high (all items ≥ 3.7). Likewise, all items were rated as relevant for the assessment of common responses to the disappearance of a loved one. Only minor changes were made to the wording of the items based on the experts' feedback. CONCLUSIONS: These descriptive results indicate that the ALI+ seems to cover the intended concept, thus showing promising face and content validity. However, further psychometric evaluations of the ALI+ are needed.

Missing persons patterns from Mexico: evidence of a forensic emergency crisis.

The relatives of missing persons in Mexico have denounced the slowness with which a court prosecution file is created by the justice administration system. Theoretically, the search is immediate, but many cases must wait 72 h to build an investigation folder as a legal criterion. This standard has been copied from the UK and Australian police reports without adapting to the Mexican context. The analysis of disappearance reports between 2006 and 2018 shows that this timing criterion in Mexico is not supported. The analyzed database (the National Center for Planning, Analysis, and Information to Combat Crime, CENAPI) showed that in the 72-h range, only 34.53% of the people had been found alive or dead; figure far from 50% to 80% of Europe or Australia. This fact shows that those searching officers or the judicial bureaucracy can act as a factor that limits the search for missing persons. Additionally, there is a random pattern in the geospatial distribution of disappearance, with non-homogeneous frequencies per year. Results highlight the participation of families, the adoption of an evidence-based model, and the generation of geospatial forensic intelligence analysis to generate evidence-based public policies. The social demand of families to the government for not considering them takes relevance in forensic practice in Mexico, and the disappearance data support this assertion.

Materials for the study of the locus operandi in the search for missing persons in Italy.

Geographic profiling, or locus operandi, is a scientific approach that has been applied to forensic investigations for several years. However, it has never been applied to a phenomenon as complex as the search for missing persons. This article presents three Italian case studies in which geographic profiling was used to narrow the areas to search for missing persons. The geographical data were mapped and processed on a geographic information system platform using computational geometry analysis. However, these disappearances occurred during the Italian lockdown period, imposed to address the COVID-19 outbreak, which made the searches slower and more complex than usual.

Improving witness interviewing for the investigation of disappeared persons due to armed conflict.

Investigating missing persons who are presumed dead in conflict contexts almost always involves witness interviews. Interviews can be critical both to locating burial sites and to positively identifying bodies that are located. Despite the importance of interviews, the authors have found that investigators in these contexts seldom have formal training on interviewing. This article highlights three principal problems that the authors have experienced relative to interviewing as part of missing persons investigations in armed conflict contexts: that interviewing is not treated as a professional activity; the tendency to overvalue technical tools in the search for burial sites; and a lack of awareness about cultural and contextual factors that impact interviews. The article concludes with five recommendations on how to improve witness interviewing.

Finding the missing and unknown: Novel educational approaches to warming up cold cases.

In recent years, students in police academies and higher education institutions around the world have worked together to analyse cold cases including long-term missing persons cases in collaboration with investigators and prosecutors. In 2020, three European organisations, the Police Expert Network on Missing Persons (PEN-MP), AMBER Alert Europe and Locate International, succeeded in connecting these educational organisations enabling them to work collectively on cases and conduct cold case analyses (CCA) across international borders. The International Cold Case Analysis Project (ICCAP) learning objectives were to 1) collect the necessary information about the victim, 2) reconstruct the crime, and 3) investigate trace control. In a learning objective-based evaluation using Computer-Assisted Web Interviewing, 76 participating students from the German and International ICCAP teams were asked to complete a pre- and post-review questionnaire to self-assess their personal competence development. Participants reported significant increases in competence in all evaluated areas, thus demonstrating that authentic and relevant collaborations can enrich the learning environment, promote the use of professional skills, and provide significant knowledge exchange opportunities between academia and industry. Drawing on case studies of cold case missing persons' investigations and unidentified found remains, this article shares how university academics, students and community volunteers can work together nationally and internationally to find out what has happened to missing people and how we can more effectively identify the previously unidentified. In so doing, we share the expertise required to progress these cold cases and provide recommendations to support other institutions and organisations in adopting this innovative approach.

Corrigendum: Dreading Yet Hoping: Traumatic Loss Impacted by Reference DNA Sample Collection for Families of Missing People.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.866269.].