Effects of Training With Different Hang-Power-Clean Intensities on the Maximum Dynamic Strength, Vertical Jump, and Sprint Performance of Female Handball Players.

PURPOSE: To compare the effects of 7 weeks of training with different hang-power-clean (HPC) intensities on the maximum dynamic strength, vertical jump, and sprint performance of female handball players. METHODS: Professional handball athletes with at least 1 year of HPC experience volunteered to participate. The athletes were balanced by position and randomly assigned to a group with HPC at 90% (HPC90%) or 50% (HPC50%) of HPC 1-repetition maximum (1RM). The training volume was equalized between groups. Pretraining and posttraining assessments included 1RM HPC, jump height in the squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ), and sprint speeds at 5, 20, and 30 m. RESULTS: From pretraining to posttraining, both groups significantly increased (P ≤ .05) 1RM HPC, although a small effect size was observed in favor of HPC90%. HPC90% and HPC50% did not induce significant changes (P > .05) in the SJ and CMJ height, although for the SJ, a small effect size was observed in favor of HPC90%. Both groups induced a significant improvement (P ≤ .05) in 5-, 20-, and 30-m sprint speeds, although for all speeds, small to moderate effect sizes were observed in favor of HPC90%. CONCLUSIONS: Both training groups induced significant improvements in 1RM HPC and sprint speeds, whereas no significant changes were observed in vertical jumps. In addition, based mainly on the effect sizes, the HPC90% group was more effective for increasing 1RM HPC, SJ, and sprint speeds than the HPC50% group.

Brain endurance training improves soccer-specific technical skills and cognitive performance in fatigued professional soccer players.

OBJECTIVES: Brain Endurance Training (BET) - the addition of mentally fatiguing cognitive tasks to standard physical training - could improve performance in soccer. We tested whether BET, with cognitive tasks intermixed with physical training activities, improved players' cognitive and soccer-specific technical performance compared to physical training alone when fresh and fatigued. DESIGN: The study employed a pre/training/midtest/training/posttest design. METHODS: 31 professional male soccer players were randomly assigned to BET or control groups and completed 18 physical training sessions over 6 weeks. In between the physical training activities, the BET group completed demanding cognitive tasks, whereas the control group rested. Players completed the Loughborough soccer passing (LSPT) and shooting test (LSST) before and after completing a 30-min Stroop task. A brief psychomotor vigilance test (PVT-B), a visual analog rating of mental fatigue (MF-VAS), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured during testing and training. RESULTS: During testing, the 30-min Stroop task elicited a state of MF, confirmed by higher subjective ratings (P < .01). Compared to pre-testing, at mid- and post-testing, the BET group improved passing (all P < .01), shooting (all P < .01), and PVT-B performance (all P < .01) when tested after (fatigued) but not before (fresh) the Stroop task, whereas the control group did not change performance either way. During training the BET group reported higher MF (P < .01) and exhibited slower PVT-B responses (P < .01) compared to control. CONCLUSIONS: Intermixed BET was more effective than physical training alone at improving cognitive and soccer-specific technical performance of professional soccer players when fatigued.

Physical Conditioning and Functional Injury-Screening Profile of Elite Female Soccer Players: A Systematic Review.

PURPOSE: To identify the physical conditioning and functional injury-screening characteristics of elite female soccer players. METHODS: This review was prospectively registered (PROSPERO CRD4202346765). Searches were conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Web of Science (from inception in March 2023 to July 2023). Updated searches were conducted in October 2023 and April 2024. Included studies were quantitative studies conducted on female soccer players. Main outcomes were functional and physical profiles. Screening, data extraction, and quality assessment (Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies and the Oxford Levels of Evidence scales) were performed. Mean differences between preseason and in-season testing periods were estimated by Hedges g effect size. Methods and results were reported according to PRISMA guidelines. RESULTS: The search yielded 1727 articles, of which 10 were included. Overall methodological quality of the studies was strong, with a moderate level of evidence. Players exhibited mean maximal oxygen uptake of 52.6 (4.5) mL·min-1·kg-1, 20-m linear-sprint performance of 3.58 (0.18) seconds, countermovement jump of 31.0 (2.9) cm, unilateral countermovement jump of 14.4 (2.1) cm, and quadriceps and hamstring peak torque at 60°·s-1 of 133 (23) and 87 (17) N·m, respectively. Mean scores recorded during in-season were 2% to 22% better than in preseason (effect size: small to very large). CONCLUSIONS: This review provides valuable normative physical conditioning and functional injury-risk assessment data for elite female soccer players. Coaches and conditioning staff can use these insights to interpret their own records and optimize their training processes. Furthermore, this study identifies methodological limitations to address in future research.

Evaluating EEG neurofeedback in sport psychology: a systematic review of RCT studies for insights into mechanisms and performance improvement.

Electroencephalographic Neurofeedback Training (EEG NFT) aims to improve sport performance by teaching athletes to control their mental states, leading to better cognitive, emotional, and physical outcomes. The psychomotor efficiency hypothesis suggests that optimizing brain function could enhance athletic ability, indicating the potential of EEG NFT. However, evidence for EEG-NFT's ability to alter critical brain activity patterns, such as sensorimotor rhythm and frontal midline theta-key for concentration and relaxation-is not fully established. Current research lacks standardized methods and comprehensive studies. This shortfall is due to inconsistent EEG target selection and insufficient focus on coherence in training. This review aims to provide empirical support for EEG target selection, conduct detailed control analyses, and examine the specificity of electrodes and frequencies to relation to the psychomotor efficiency hypothesis. Following the PRISMA method, 2,869 empirical studies were identified from PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, Embase, CNKI, and PsycINFO. Thirteen studies met the inclusion criteria: (i) proficient skill levels; (ii) use of EEG; (iii) neurofeedback training (NFT); (iv) motor performance metrics (reaction time, precision, dexterity, balance); (v) control group for NFT comparison; (vi) peer-reviewed English-language publication; and (vii) randomized controlled trial (RCT) design. Studies indicate that NFT can enhance sports performance, including improvements in shooting accuracy, golf putting, and overall motor skills, as supported by the psychomotor efficiency hypothesis. EEG NFT demonstrates potential in enhancing sports performance by optimizing performers' mental states and psychomotor efficiency. However, the current body of research is hampered by inconsistent methodologies and a lack of standardized EEG target selection. To strengthen the empirical evidence supporting EEG NFT, future studies need to focus on standardizing target selection, employing rigorous control analyses, and investigating underexplored EEG markers. These steps are vital to bolster the evidence for EEG NFT and enhance its effectiveness in boosting sport performance.

Adaptive cognitive tasks for mental fatigue: An innovative paradigm for cognitive loading in human performance.

OBJECTIVES: Mental fatigue (MF) can impair cognitive and physical performance in sport. We tested the hypothesis that a shorter adaptive Time Load Dual Back (TLDB) task induces MF faster than a longer Stroop; and subsequently impairs cognitive and intermittent running performance. DESIGN: This study employed a randomized within-participant design. METHODS: 25 trained individuals performed a Yo-Yo test after one of four experimental conditions (30-min Stroop, 20-min and 10-min TLDB tasks, and active control). Cognitive performance was assessed using the Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT) before and after the experimental conditions. Measures of mood, workload, MF, RPE, heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV) and blood lactate were collected. ANOVAs determined the effect of the 4 conditions. RESULTS: Stroop and 20-min TLDB conditions impaired running performance similarly (p = .015), while no differences are reported for 10-min TLDB and Control. No significant differences in physiological parameters were reported during the Yo-Yo test although RPE was significantly higher in the Stroop and 20-min TLDB conditions (p = .014). Stroop and both TLDBs conditions impaired PVT's cognitive performance (p = .029), MF (p = .012), mental demand (p < .001), HR (p = .021) and HRV (p = .033); with 20-min TLDB task having the higher significant impact. Mood alterations were similar between Stroop and TLDB conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Intermittent running (Yo-Yo) and cognitive (PVT) performances, and subjective ratings were impaired by 30-min Stroop and 20-min TLDB tasks; while 10-min TLDB did not to impair performance. Shorter adaptive modes seem to be more effective in inducing MF and could have relevant clinical applications to assess conditions such as traumatic brain injury and concussion.

Identifying the Qualities of Attention and the Attentional Style in Indoor Team Sports: A Gender Comparison.

Attention is an essential psychological component in sports games, which conditions sports success. The purpose of this study was to identify the attention style (internal or external) and the weight of attention qualities depending on the practiced team sport (basketball, volleyball, or handball) and gender (female or male), in athletes aged 15-18. A total of 177 active athletes (87 female (mean age ± standard deviation: 16.07 ± 0.94 years) and 90 male (mean age ± standard deviation: 15.96 ± 0.82 years)) were involved in the study, including 62 handball players (28 female and 34 male), 58 volleyball players (30 female and 28 male) and 57 basketball players (29 female and 28 male). In the study, two questionnaires were applied: one implemented to identify the attentive style with the two dimensions internal and external (standardized), called questionnaire for the assessment of attentional style in athletes (QASA), and one designed by us, called questionnaire to identify the weights of attention qualities according to the characteristics of the practiced sport (QAQCS), aiming to identify the most relevant quality of attention, depending on the practiced sport. Cronbach's alpha for both questionnaires was between 0.701 and 0.855. The results recorded in the present study reveal a variation in the attentional style between the groups of athletes and between genders. The results of the study highlight that in handball, girls have a predominantly external style with a total of 10.213 points; in boys' handball, the predominant focus of attention is internal with a total score of 9.087 points. Girls' volleyball focus of attention is predominantly external, with 8.999 points; in boys' volleyball, the attention style is internal, registering a score of 9.713 points. In girls' basketball, the predominant focus of attention is internal, with a total score of 8.516 points; in boys' basketball, the external attention style is predominant, with 9.213 points. Looking at the weight of attention qualities, it was found that the most relevant for girls is concentration and mobility for handball players, stability was identified in volleyball, and distributiveness in basketball. In boys' handball teams, mobility is the most essential, just like in basketball, and in volleyball it was found that stability has the biggest impact. ANOVA analysis highlighted statistically significant differences between groups of sports games by gender category, at both subscales of (QASA), as well as QAQCS, p < 0.05. The results of our study highlight differences between the attentional styles and their qualities in relation to the gender and the specific sport played, which determines differentiated approaches to these psychological components.

Supporting transplant athletes: perspectives on delivery of a sports performance and well-being service at the British Transplant Games.

Evidence suggests that engaging in physical activity improves the mental and physical health of transplant recipients. An opportunity to be more active could be participating in the national and international network of Transplant Games. Although the literature on motivations for and the experience of taking part in the Games is available, little is known about what role applied practitioners, specifically sport and exercise psychologists could play as transplant recipients prepare and compete. This paper offers perspectives on the provision of a sports performance well-being service delivered at the British Transplant Games. The paper consists of several sections. The first offers background and how the service came into being. The second provides details of the model and philosophy that underpinned the service delivery. The third includes the trainee and exercise practitioner's casework and the challenges therein. Informed by the team's reflections and post-games survey the final section proposes recommendations for future applied sport and exercise services at this unique event.

Sex Differences in the Ergogenic Response of Acute Caffeine Intake on Muscular Strength, Power and Endurance Performance in Resistance-Trained Individuals: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: This study assessed the impact of acute caffeine intake on muscular strength, power, and endurance performance between resistance-trained male and female individuals according to load in upper- and lower-body exercises. METHODS: Here, 76 resistance-trained individuals (38 females, 38 males) participated in a study comparing caffeine and a placebo. Each received either 3 mg/kg of caffeine or a placebo 60 min before tests measuring muscular strength and power through bench press and back squat exercises at different intensities (25%, 50%, 75%, 90% 1RM). Muscular endurance at 65% 1RM was also assessed by performing reps until reaching task failure. RESULTS: Compared to placebo, caffeine increased mean, peak and time to reach peak velocity and power output (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.242-0.293) in the muscular strength/power test in males and females. This effect was particularly observed in the back squat exercise at 50%, 75% and 90% 1RM (2.5-8.5%, p < 0.05, g = 1.0-2.4). For muscular endurance, caffeine increased the number of repetitions, mean velocity and power output (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.177-0.255) in both sexes and exercises (3.0-8.9%, p < 0.05, g = 0.15-0.33). CONCLUSIONS: Acute caffeine intake resulted in a similar ergogenic effect on muscular strength, power, and endurance performance in upper- and lower-body exercises for male and female resistance-trained participants.

Imagining flying increases jumping performance in volleyball players: A pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: The study aimed to examine the effect of mental imagery on sports performance. Specifically, it was tested whether imagining flying (i.e., air travel) increases jumping performance in a group of female volleyball players. METHODS: The study included 46 female young athletes (mean age = 15.23 years; standard deviation = 2.4) divided into two groups: the experimental group viewed a three-dimensional video that simulated a flying experience, while the control group watched neutral footage. The jump performance of both groups was measured before and after viewing the videos, using the Vertec Like® instrument to assess jump height. Participants were assessed for their flow disposition, mental imagery skills, and image vividness. RESULTS: Comparing pre-post jump performance scores, the experimental group showed a significant improvement over the control group, with a medium-large effect size (d = 0.634). There was no significant association between flow disposition, mental imagery skills, image vividness, and pre-post jumping performance differences (respectively: ß = -0.107, p = .484; ß = -0.008, p = .957; ß = 0.024, p = .913). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that the experience of imagining flying, enhanced with an immersive video, has a positive effect on jumping performance in a one-session study with young female volleyball players. This effect does not appear to be associated with pre-existing characteristics or the vividness of the image itself.

Effects of high-intensity interval training and resistance training on physiological parameters and performance of well-trained runners: A randomized controlled trial.

This study aimed to verify the effects of 4 weeks of high-intensity interval training (HIIT), heavy (HRT) and explosive (ERT) resistance training on aerobic, anaerobic and neuromuscular parameters and performance of well-trained runners. Twenty-six male athletes were divided into HIIT (n = 10), HRT (n = 7) and ERT (n = 9) groups. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and the corresponding velocity (vVO2max), anaerobic threshold (AT), running economy (RE), oxygen uptake kinetics, lower-body strength (1RM) and power (CMJ), and the 1500m and 5000m time-trial (TT) were determined. Improvements were observed in vVO2max (mean difference (Δ): 2.6%; effect size (ES): 0.63) with HIIT, while AT was incresead in ERT (Δ: 4.3%; ES: 0.73) and HRT (Δ: 6.9%; ES: 0.72) groups. The CMJ performance was increased in ERT (Δ: 13.8%; ES: 1.03), HRT (Δ: 6.9%; ES: 0.55) and HIIT (Δ: 5.4%; ES: 0.34), whereas 1RM increase in HRT (Δ: 38.1%; ES: 1.21) and ERT (Δ: 49.2%; ES: 0.96) groups. HIIT improved the 1500m (Δ: -2.3%; ES: -0.62) and both HRT (Δ: -1.6%; ES: -0.32) and ERT (Δ: -1.7%; ES: -0.31) the 5000m TT. Despite performance adaptations were dependent on the training characteristics, both RT and HIIT model constitute an alternative for training periodization.

Resilience profiles of elite athletes and their associations with health-related behaviors, well-being, and performance: A latent profile analysis.

Resilience is an important factor in the performances of elite athletes as it helps them overcome the adversity they face on a daily basis. It is a dynamic process with resilience qualities evolving throughout athletes' sporting careers. Recent research has established links between resilience, sports performance, lifestyle, and health-related factors. However, no study has yet focused on the resilience profiles of athletes (i.e., sub-groups of individuals with similar levels of different resilience qualities). The aims of this study were to: (a) explore the resilience profiles of elite athletes, (b) determine the characteristics of these resilience profiles (i.e., health-related behaviors, well-being, perceived social support), and (c) determine the correlates of these profiles at intrapersonal and interpersonal levels. Latent profile analysis was performed on 307 French elite athletes. Results revealed "high resilience" and "moderate resilience" profiles. Athletes with "high resilience" profiles were more likely to be men, exhibit better health-related behaviors, and have higher levels of psychological well-being and perceived performance. High levels of conscientiousness, extraversion, the dimensions of the coach-athlete relationship and the motivational climate were also related to the "high resilience" profile. This study is the first to explore the resilience profiles of elite athletes. The results suggest that a high level of resilience is related to the adoption of health-related behaviors favorable to elite sport. Based on these findings, health promotion programs targeting the concept of resilience should be developed in elite sport centers for athletes, coaches, and parents.

Decision-Making Time Analysis for Assessing Processing Speed in Athletes during Motor Reaction Tasks.

Reaction time (RT) is a widely used measure for testing physical performance in motor tasks. This study focused on assessing the processing speed in athletes. Twenty-five healthy volunteers were assigned to the control (n = 16) or athletes groups (n = 9). They were evaluated during motor reaction tasks based on visual stimuli and three difficulty conditions. Physiological measures were obtained from motion capture and electromyography recordings of several muscles. Two RT phases, decision-making (DMK) and electromechanical delay (EMD), were used to analyze the processing speed. The results show significant RT differences between groups. The athletes were ~30% faster compared to the control group. Despite the fact that all participants were right-handed, RT did not show any differences between hands performances in any group. However, DMK time revealed significant differences between the hands. Controls showed a longer DMK time for the right-hand election, ~20% more than the left, while athletes showed no such disparity. These findings reveal that quantifying the decision-making component of reaction time is crucial to assessing processing speed in sport. This approach could facilitate the monitoring of adaptations in both motor-cognitive and neuromuscular processes. The theoretical implications presented in this study offer perspectives on handedness research.

Acute effects of prismatic adaptation on penalty kick accuracy and postural control in young soccer players: A pilot study.

Background: Prismatic adaptation (PA) is a visuomotor technique using prismatic glasses that are capable of moving the visual field and to affect the excitability of certain brain areas. The aim of this pilot study was to explore potential acute effects of PA on penalty kick accuracy and postural control in youth soccer players. Methods: In this randomized crossover study, seven young male soccer players performed three PA sessions (rightward PA, r-PA; leftward PA, l-PA; sham PA, s-PA) with a washout period of 1-week between them. Immediately before and after each PA session, penalty kick accuracy and postural control were assessed. Results: We detected an increase in penalty kick accuracy following PA, regardless of the deviation side of the prismatic glasses (F1,5 = 52.15; p = 0.08; ηp2 = 0.981). In detail, our results showed an increase in the penalty kick accuracy toward the right target of the football goal following r-PA and toward the left target of the football goal following l-PA. We detected a significant effect on the sway path length (F2,12 = 10.42; p = 0.002; ηp2 = 0.635) and the sway average speed (F2,12 = 9.17; p = 0.004; ηp2 = 0.605) parameters in the stabilometric test with open eyes following PA, regardless of the deviation side of the prismatic glasses. In detail, our results showed a significant difference in both the stabilometric parameters (p = 0.016 and p = 0.009, respectively) only following l-PA. Conclusion: The findings of this pilot study indicate that PA could positively affect penalty kick accuracy and postural control suggesting that PA could be used as a visual training technique in athletes.

Analysis of Player Performance and Financial Costs Associated With Implementation of an Updated National Hockey League Concussion Protocol: A Retrospective Comparative Study.

Background: An updated National Hockey League (NHL) concussion protocol (NHLCP) was established in the 2016-2017 season to mitigate the negative outcomes of sport-related concussions. However, few studies on the effects of implementing the NHLCP have been performed. Purpose: To define concussion incidence and investigate differences in NHL player performance after a concussion during periods before and after NHLCP implementation and assess the financial impact on NHL teams associated with NHLCP implementation. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: This was a retrospective review of NHL players who sustained a concussion before (2000-2001 to 2015-2016 seasons) and after (2016-2017 to 2020-2021 seasons) implementing the NHLCP (pre-NHLCP and post-NHLCP groups). For each group, multiple performance metrics-including 30 days, 1 season, and 3 seasons before and after concussion-were compared for both groups. Return to play, total concussion cost, and association of return to play with cost were investigated using regression analysis. Results: A total of 452 players (423 skaters, 29 goalies) sustained concussions during the study period, including 331 players (315 skaters, 16 goalies) in the pre-NHLCP group and 121 players (108 skaters, 13 goalies) in the post-NHLCP group. For both groups, no significant differences in standard performance were observed during the 30-day and 1-season periods before and after concussion. The mean return to play was significantly higher in the pre-NHLCP group than in the post-NHLCP group (20.1 vs 15.7 days; P = .022). The mean adjusted player salary was not different between groups; nonetheless, the mean adjusted replacement player salary was significantly higher in the post-NHLCP group ($744,505 vs $896,942; P = .032). The mean cost of time missed did not differ between groups. The mean return to play time significantly decreased over the entire study period (R2 = 0.33; P = .005), and the mean return to play time was positively associated with cost R2 = 0.215; P = .030). Conclusion: Concussion incidence did not change after implementation of the updated NHLCP; nonetheless, players had significantly less missed time from injury after protocol implementation. Changes in player performance 30 days and 1 year before and after concussion injury were not different before and after NHLCP implementation. No differences were found in the financial cost of concussions between the pre- and post-NHLCP groups, and missed time was significantly correlated with mean cost from missed time.

Advancing athlete development: How Percentile Comparison Methods (PCMs) can identify youth developmental profiles.

OBJECTIVES: Inter-individual developmental differences confound the capability to accurately evaluate youth athletic performance, highlighting the need for considerate methodology and analytical approaches. The present study demonstrated how Percentile Comparison Methods (PCMs) were developed, tested, and applied to identify athlete developmental profiles in Australian youth swimming. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. METHODS: Participants were N = 866 female 100-metre (m) Front-Crawl swimmers, aged 9-15 years, competing at 36 Australian regional-national level long course events. At respective events, swim performance time was collated alongside, age, date of birth, and anthropometric measures to identify age group, relative age, and maturity status. Quadratic relative age and maturity status with 100-m performance regression trendlines were generated. Then, individual swim performances at a given relative age or maturity status were converted into percentile rank distributions and compared with raw (unadjusted) annual age-group performance percentile ranks. RESULTS: At a cohort level, initial testing confirmed relative age and maturity-adjusted percentile rankings were associated with general rank improvements for relatively younger and later maturing swimmers compared to raw ranks (and vice versa). When assessing individual swimmer plots, where three percentile rank scores were compared and rank change threshold criteria applied, five Percentile Comparison Method profile types were identified, namely: 'Early Developing' (19 %); 'Later Developing' (18 %); 'Consistent' (15 %); 'Mixed' (38 %) and 'Counteracting' (10 %). Percentile Comparison Method plots helped identify developmentally (dis-)advantaged swimmers; specific factors leading to (dis-)advantage, and likely onward development trajectories. CONCLUSIONS: Overall and with practical considerations, Percentile Comparison Methods can improve the validity of youth athletic performance evaluation as well as inform athlete development programming.

Integrated use of biofeedback and neurofeedback techniques in treating pathological conditions and improving performance: a narrative review.

In recent years, the scientific community has begun tо explore the efficacy оf an integrated neurofeedback + biofeedback approach іn various conditions, both pathological and non-pathological. Although several studies have contributed valuable insights into its potential benefits, this review aims tо further investigate its effectiveness by synthesizing current findings and identifying areas for future research. Our goal іs tо provide a comprehensive overview that may highlight gaps іn the existing literature and propose directions for subsequent studies. The search for articles was conducted on the digital databases PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Studies to have used the integrated neurofeedback + biofeedback approach published between 2014 and 2023 and reviews to have analyzed the efficacy of neurofeedback and biofeedback, separately, related to the same time interval and topics were selected. The search identified five studies compatible with the objectives of the review, related to several conditions: nicotine addiction, sports performance, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The integrated neurofeedback + biofeedback approach has been shown to be effective in improving several aspects of these conditions, such as a reduction in the presence of psychiatric symptoms, anxiety, depression, and withdrawal symptoms and an increase in self-esteem in smokers; improvements in communication, imitation, social/cognitive awareness, and social behavior in ASD subjects; improvements in attention, alertness, and reaction time in sports champions; and improvements in attention and inhibitory control in ADHD subjects. Further research, characterized by greater methodological rigor, is therefore needed to determine the effectiveness of this method and the superiority, if any, of this type of training over the single administration of either. This review іs intended tо serve as a catalyst for future research, signaling promising directions for the advancement оf biofeedback and neurofeedback methodologies.

Anthropometric Characteristics, Training Intensity Distribution, Physiological Profile and Performance of an Elite Trail Runner: A Longitudinal Case Study / Características Antropométricas, Distribución de la Intensidad del Entrenamiento, Perfil Fisiológico y Rendimiento de un Corredor de Montaña de Élite: Un Estudio de Caso Longitudinal

SUMMARY: Trail running (TR), an extreme endurance sport, presents unique challenges due to the variety of terrain and distances, where physiological capacity and body composition have been considered better predictors of performance. This longitudinal case study examines the impact of training intensity distribution (TID) on an elite trail runner's physiological profile and performance over four years. Two TID models were implemented: polarized (POL) and pyramidal (PYR). Physiological assessments included maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), lactate thresholds (LT1 and LT2), and anthropometric characteristics. The training was classified according to the 3-zone intensity model (zone 1: below the first lactate threshold; zone 2: between the first and second lactate threshold; zone 3: above the second lactate threshold). During the four years, the average TID distribution was 75 % zone 1, 18 % zone 2, and 7 % zone 3. Physiological capacity increased by 7.14 % (14 to 15 km/h) for velocity at LT1 (vLT1) and 8.13 % (16 to 17.3 km/h) for velocity at LT2 (vLT2). The most significant increases were observed during the second year when the percentage of training time in zone 1 was lower (65 %) and in zone 2 greater (30 %) than those reported in other years. Consequently, vLT1 and vLT2 increased by 3.5 % (from 14.1 to 14.6 km/h) and 3.6 % (from 16.5 to 17.1 km/h), respectively. In conclusion, this case study revealed that emphasizing training in zone 2 (moderate intensity) and increasing the training load significantly improved performance at lactate thresholds. Despite modifying body composition, no influence on improving endurance performance was observed. These findings underscore the importance of TID in elite trail runners and highlight the potential to optimize physiological adaptations and performance outcomes.

Trail running (TR), un deporte de resistencia extrema, presenta desafíos únicos debido a la variedad de terrenos y distancias, donde la capacidad fisiológica y la composición corporal se han considerado mejores predictores del rendimiento. Este estudio de caso longitudinal examina el impacto de la distribución de la intensidad del entrenamiento (TID) en el perfil fisiológico y el rendimiento de un corredor de montaña de élite durante cuatro años. Se implementaron dos modelos TID: polarizado (POL) y piramidal (PYR). Las evaluaciones fisiológicas incluyeron el consumo máximo de oxígeno (VO2max), los umbrales de lactato (LT1 y LT2) y las características antropométricas. El entrenamiento se clasificó según el modelo de intensidad de 3 zonas (zona 1: por debajo del primer umbral de lactato; zona 2: entre el primer y segundo umbral de lactato; zona 3: por encima del segundo umbral de lactato). Durante los cuatro años, la distribución TID promedio fue 75 % zona 1, 18 % zona 2 y 7 % zona 3. La capacidad fisiológica aumentó un 7,14 % (14 a 15 km/h) para la velocidad en LT1 (vLT1) y un 8,13 % (16 a 17,3 km/h) para velocidad en LT2 (vLT2). Los incrementos más significativos se observaron durante el segundo año cuando el porcentaje de tiempo de entrenamiento en la zona 1 fue menor (65 %) y en la zona 2 mayor (30 %) que los reportados en otros años. En consecuencia, vLT1 y vLT2 aumentaron un 3,5 % (de 14,1 a 14,6 km/h) y un 3,6 % (de 16,5 a 17,1 km/h), respectivamente. En conclusión, este estudio reveló que enfatizar el entrenamiento en la zona 2 (intensidad moderada) y aumentar la carga de entrenamiento mejoró significativamente el rendimiento en los umbrales de lactato. A pesar de modificar la composición corporal, no se observó influencia en la mejora del rendimiento de resistencia. Estos hallazgos subrayan la importancia del TID en los corredores de trail de élite y resaltan el potencial para optimizar las adaptaciones fisiológicas y los resultados de rendimiento.

Stress and sport performance: a PNEI multidisciplinary approach.

Stress control is essential for avoiding a state of anxiety in sport competitions, as this state may have negative effects on other psychological variables of athletes, decreasing their self-confidence and harming their attentional control. In the present contribution a distress intervention model developed from a PNEI perspective will be sketched out. Our theoretical-methodological proposal consists of the definition of an integrated protocol of psycho-biological assessment and intervention on the allostatic load and on the levels of distress/eustress detectable in the sport environment, in relation to the person's health/well-being condition and the impact of this condition on the quality of sport performance. This paradigm has the potential to explore both the psychological dimension of stress management and the psycho-educational and psycho-physical dimension, according to a truly integrated approach to the athlete's health and psychophysical well-being. Its multidisciplinary nature requires close cooperation between different professional figures, such as the mental coach, psychologist, nutritionist, osteopath, and physiotherapist, as well as biologists, physicians and kinesiologists, both in planning and in implementation and monitoring at all stages. The potential impact of the model on sport performance will be deeply discussed.

Four-compartment muscle fatigue model to predict metabolic inhibition and long-lasting nonmetabolic components.

Introduction: Computational muscle force models aim to mathematically represent the mechanics of movement and the factors influencing force generation. These tools allow the prediction of the nonlinear and task-related muscle behavior, aiding biomechanics, sports science, and rehabilitation. Despite often overlooking muscle fatigue in low-force scenarios, these simulations are crucial for high-intensity activities where fatigue and force loss play a significant role. Applications include functional electrical stimulation, motor control, and ergonomic considerations in diverse contexts, encompassing rehabilitation and the prevention of injuries in sports and workplaces. Methods: In this work, the authors enhance the pre-existing 3CCr muscle fatigue model by introducing an additional component of force decay associated with central fatigue and a long-term fatigue state. The innovative four-compartment model distinguishes between the short-term fatigued state (related to metabolic inhibition) and the long-term fatigued state (emulating central fatigue and potential microtraumas). Results: Its validation process involved experimental measurements during both short- and long-duration exercises, shedding light on the limitations of the traditional 3CCr in addressing dynamic force profiles.