Ending the HIV Epidemic Among Persons Who Inject Drugs: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis in Six US Cities.

BACKGROUND: Persons who inject drugs (PWID) are at a disproportionately high risk of HIV infection. We aimed to determine the highest-valued combination implementation strategies to reduce the burden of HIV among PWID in 6 US cities. METHODS: Using a dynamic HIV transmission model calibrated for Atlanta, Baltimore, Los Angeles, Miami, New York City, and Seattle, we assessed the value of implementing combinations of evidence-based interventions at optimistic (drawn from best available evidence) or ideal (90% coverage) scale-up. We estimated reduction in HIV incidence among PWID, quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) for each city (10-year implementation; 20-year horizon; 2018 $ US). RESULTS: Combinations that maximized health benefits contained between 6 (Atlanta and Seattle) and 12 (Miami) interventions with ICER values ranging from $94 069/QALY in Los Angeles to $146 256/QALY in Miami. These strategies reduced HIV incidence by 8.1% (credible interval [CI], 2.8%-13.2%) in Seattle and 54.4% (CI, 37.6%-73.9%) in Miami. Incidence reduction reached 16.1%-75.5% at ideal scale. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence-based interventions targeted to PWID can deliver considerable value; however, ending the HIV epidemic among PWID will require innovative implementation strategies and supporting programs to reduce social and structural barriers to care.

Healthcare Access and Utilization Among Persons Who Inject Drugs in Medicaid Expansion and Nonexpansion States: 22 United States Cities, 2018.

BACKGROUND: Medicaid expansion under the Affordable Care Act increased insurance coverage, access to healthcare, and substance use disorder treatment, for many Americans. We assessed differences in healthcare access and utilization among persons who inject drugs (PWID) by state Medicaid expansion status. METHODS: In 2018, PWID were interviewed in 22 US cities for National HIV Behavioral Surveillance. We analyzed data from PWID aged 18-64 years who reported illicit use of opioids (n = 9957) in the past 12 months. Poisson regression models with robust standard errors were used to estimate adjusted prevalence ratios (aPRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were used to examine differences by Medicaid expansion status in indicators of healthcare access and utilization. RESULTS: Persons who inject drugs in Medicaid expansion states were more likely to have insurance (87% vs 36%; aPR, 2.3; 95% CI, 2.0-2.6), a usual source of healthcare (53% vs 34%; aPR, 1.5; 95% CI, 1.3-1.9), and have used medication-assisted treatment (61% vs 36%; aPR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.1-1.7), and they were less likely to have an unmet need for care (21% vs 39%; aPR, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.4-0.7) than those in nonexpansion states. CONCLUSIONS: Low insurance coverage, healthcare access, and medication-assisted treatment utilization among PWID in some areas could hinder efforts to end the intertwined human immunodeficiency virus and opioid overdose epidemics.

Ecological momentary assessment of daily drug use and harm reduction service utilization among people who inject drugs in non-urban areas: A concurrent mixed-method feasibility study.

BACKGROUND: Ecological momentary assessments (EMA) can improve data accuracy and be useful for understanding the real-time co-occurrence of drug use and harm reduction service utilization among people who inject drugs (PWID); however, feasibility and acceptability of EMA in this population is unknown. METHODS: We conducted qualitative interviews (n = 45) and EMA surveys (n = 38) with PWID in cities and towns outside of Massachusetts' and Rhode Island's capital cities to 1) assess EMA feasibility and acceptability and 2) examine day-level correlations between drug use and harm reduction service utilization. RESULTS: Qualitative and quantitative data demonstrated that a 14-day EMA study was both feasible and acceptable. Interviews identified housing instability and related disruptions in cellphone access as challenges to consistent EMA participation. In the 14-day EMA study, EMA completion was high (mean = 10.1 days,SD = 5.3). High completion was associated with higher education (p = 0.005), receiving EMA via SMS text (vs. email, p = 0.017), and not having injected crack in the past month (p = 0.026). Of those who responded (n = 29), 100 % reported willingness to participate in a similar future study. Past 24 -h use of harm reduction services was positively associated with past 24 -h injection drug use (p = 0.013), but not past 24 -h syringe sharing (p = 0.197). CONCLUSION: Findings support the acceptability, feasibility, and potential utility of EMA for understanding daily experiences of PWID. Future studies should explore strategies to overcome structural barriers to maximize EMA participation, and assess how injection practices, syringe sharing, and use of harm reduction services interact to impact health risks in larger and diverse samples of PWID.

Incidence and treatment costs of severe bacterial infections among people who inject heroin: A cohort study in South London, England.

BACKGROUND: People who inject drugs often get bacterial infections. Few longitudinal studies have reported the incidence and treatment costs of these infections. METHODS: For a cohort of 2335 people who inject heroin entering treatment for drug dependence between 2006 and 2017 in London, England, we reported the rates of hospitalisation or death with primary causes of cutaneous abscess, cellulitis, phlebitis, septicaemia, osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, endocarditis, or necrotising fasciitis. We compared these rates to the general population. We also used NHS reference costs to calculate the cost of admissions. RESULTS: During a median of 8.0 years of follow-up, 24 % of patients (570/2335) had a severe bacterial infection, most commonly presenting with cutaneous abscesses or cellulitis. Bacterial infections accounted for 13 % of all hospital admissions. The rate was 73 per 1000 person-years (95 % CI 69-77); 50 times the general population, and the rate remained high throughout follow-up. The rate of severe bacterial infections for women was 1.50 (95 % CI 1.32-1.69) times the rate for men. The mean cost per admission was £4980, and we estimate that the annual cost of hospital treatment for people who inject heroin in London is £4.5 million. CONCLUSIONS: People who inject heroin have extreme and long-term risk of severe bacterial infections.

Hospital Stays and Medical Expenses Increase Nationwide Among Patients With Septic Arthritis of the Shoulder Who Inject Drugs.

The authors determined the proportion of patients nationwide with septic arthritis of the shoulder who inject drugs, evaluated differences in hospitalization outcomes and charges between patients with and without injection drug use (IDU), and quantified demographic trends among patients with IDU from 2000 to 2013. Nationally representative data of patients with a principal discharge diagnosis of shoulder septic arthritis were obtained from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample 2000-2013. Using published algorithms, the authors classified septic arthritis of the shoulder as related or unrelated to IDU. They compared length of stay, leaving against medical advice, number of procedures, and mortality rates between the 2 groups, using regression models to control for age, sex, and race. Fifteen percent (95% confidence interval [CI], 13.6%-16.5%) of septic arthritis cases were associated with IDU. From 2000 to 2013, shoulder septic arthritis associated with IDU increased 4-fold. After controlling for age, sex, and race, individuals who inject drugs stayed in the hospital for 3.7 more days (95% CI, 2.4-5.0), incurred an average of $13,250 more charges for medical care (95% CI, $2635-$23,866), and were 5.54 times more likely (95% CI, 3.22-9.55) to leave against medical advice than those without IDU. From 2000 to 2013, there was an increase in the proportion of patients with IDU-related septic arthritis of the shoulder between 35 and 54 years old and 55 and 64 years old, and an increase in the proportion who were white. Injection drug use-related shoulder septic arthritis is linked to suboptimal inpatient outcomes and greater resource use. [Orthopedics. 2020;43(4):e270-e277.].

Socio-demographic and ecological factors associated with anti-HCV prevalence in people who inject drugs: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization (WHO) aim to eliminate hepatitis C virus (HCV) as a public health threat by 2030. People who inject drugs (PWID) are a key risk group for HCV transmission globally. We explored socio-demographic and ecological variables associated with HCV antibody (anti-HCV) prevalence among samples of PWID. METHODS: We systematically searched for and screened journal articles and online reports published between January 2011 and June 2017. Serologically confirmed anti-HCV prevalence among PWID and other study-level socio-demographic variables were extracted. Country-level ecological indicators were sourced from online databases. We used generalized linear models to investigate associations between anti-HCV prevalence estimates and other study-level and country-level variables. RESULTS: There were 223 studies from 84 countries contributing 569 estimates of anti-HCV prevalence among PWID. Among study-level indicators, higher levels of anti-HCV prevalence were associated with higher HIV prevalence (B = 0.20; 95 % Confidence Interval [95 %CI] = 0.12, 0.29, p < 0.001) and year of data collection (B=-0.08; 95 %CI=-0.15, -0.02; p = 0.011). At a national level, higher Human Development Index scores (B=4.37; 95 %CI=0.12, 8.63, p = 0.044) were associated with higher levels of anti-HCV in samples. IMPLICATIONS: Serological surveillance data are increasingly available globally; however, there are still geographical gaps in quantification of HCV prevalence among PWID that must be addressed to inform efforts to achieve HCV elimination. Anti-HCV prevalence was lower in samples of PWID from countries with lower Human Development Index scores, which points to an opportunity to provide targeted intervention and potentially control transmission rates of infection in countries characterized by poor population health, education, and income.

Associations between housing stability and injecting frequency fluctuations: findings from a cohort of people who inject drugs in Montréal, Canada.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between housing stability and drug injecting is complex, as both outcomes fluctuate over time. The objectives were to identify short-term trajectories of housing stability and injecting frequency among people who inject drugs (PWID) and examine how patterns of injecting frequency relate to those of housing stability. METHODS: At three-month intervals, PWID enrolled between 2011 and 2016 in the Hepatitis Cohort completed an interviewer-administered questionnaire and were tested for hepatitis C and HIV infections. At each visit, participants reported, for each of the past three months, the accommodation they lived in the longest (stable/unstable) and the number of injecting days (0-30). Group-based dual trajectory modeling was conducted to identify housing stability and injecting frequency trajectories evolving concomitantly over 12 months and estimate the probabilities of following injecting trajectories conditional upon housing trajectories. RESULTS: 386 participants were included (mean age 40.0, 82 % male). Three housing stability trajectories were identified: sustained (53 %), declining (20 %), and improving (27 %). Five injecting frequency trajectories were identified: sporadic (26 %), infrequent (34 %), increasing (15 %), decreasing (11 %), and frequent (13 %). PWID with improving housing were less likely to increase injecting (8 %) compared to those with sustained (17 %) or declining housing (17 %). CONCLUSIONS: Improving housing was associated with a lower probability of increasing injecting compared to declining housing, while sustained housing stability was associated with a higher probability of increasing injecting compared to improving housing. Therefore, policies to improve PWID's access to stable housing are warranted and may reduce, to some extent, drug injecting and related harms.

Understanding disparities in access to naloxone among people who inject drugs in Southeast Michigan using respondent driven sampling.

BACKGROUND: Given the rising incidence of opioid overdose in the United States, naloxone access is critical for high-risk populations, such as persons who inject drugs (PWID). Yet not all PWID have access to this life-saving antidote. With PWID in Michigan recruited via respondent driven sampling in 2017, after the 2016 standing order expanding naloxone availability through local pharmacies, we explored possible access disparities. METHODS: With 46 seeds recruited from agencies serving local PWID communities, we obtained a sample of N = 410 PWID from Southeast Michigan (n = 285 form urban Detroit, and 125 for suburban/rural areas outside Detroit). Participants completed questionnaires detailing socio-demographics, health history, substance use and treatment access, including naloxone. We used multiple logistic regression to examine the predictors of self-reported naloxone access based on participant characteristics (e.g., demographics, health status) and geography (urban vs. suburban/rural). RESULTS: Self-reported naloxone access differed significantly by location (urban = 18.3 %; suburban/rural = 41.9 %). In multivariable analyses, naloxone access was significantly associated with race, household income, employment, health insurance, recent homelessness, prescription opioid usage, Hepatitis A and C status, Hepatitis A vaccination, Hepatitis C testing, access to drug treatment and services, and hospital as the usual place of care. CONCLUSION: Despite recent policies to expand access, our results indicate that naloxone access among high-risk PWID is low. This warrants future research to identify effective channels to reduce barriers and increase naloxone access.

Cost-Effectiveness of Postoperative Drug Rehabilitation for Injection Drug Users.

BACKGROUND: With the opioid crisis showing no sign of abating, strategies are needed to facilitate postoperative care for endocarditis related to injection drug use (IDU). The current standard, 6 weeks of intravenous antibiotics, yields frequent reoperation and IDU relapse. We examined the cost-effectiveness of inpatient drug rehabilitation (DR) postoperatively to optimize outcomes and costs. METHODS: Two postoperative strategies were assessed: hospital-only care (HC) vs HC plus inpatient DR. Monte Carlo simulation evaluated effectiveness in quality-adjusted life-years (QALY) and cost per patient calculated over a 20-year time horizon in 100,000 iterations. Willingness to pay was set to $100,000/QALY. To determine probabilities of continued postoperative IDU, recurrent infection, and death, best available evidence was combined with institutional data from IDU patients. Baseline probability of postoperative IDU was set to 35% after DR vs 60% after HC, and the cost of inpatient rehabilitation to $30,000. RESULTS: Addition of inpatient DR to standard HC is the favorable strategy, with incremental per-patient cost of $36,920 and 0.93 QALYs gained over 20 years. Sensitivity analysis demonstrates DR is within our willingness-to-pay of $100,000/QALY if postoperative IDU is reduced by at least 7% (from 60% to 53%). CONCLUSIONS: Addition of postoperative inpatient DR for IDU-related endocarditis is cost-effective even if only a modest reduction in IDU is achieved. Collaboration between hospitals and payors to launch pilot programs that provide postoperative addiction treatment and intravenous antibiotics after cardiac operations could dramatically improve endocarditis care.

Perceived need, barriers to and facilitators of mental health care among HIV-infected PWID in Hanoi, Vietnam: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: The HIV epidemic in Vietnam has been primarily driven by injection drug use. HIV-infected people who inject drugs (PWID) in Vietnam have very high rates of mental health problems, which can accelerate progression to AIDS and increase mortality rates. No research has explored the barriers and facilitators of mental health care for HIV-infected PWID in Vietnam. METHODS: We conducted 28 in-depth interviews among HIV-infected PWID (n = 16), HIV and MMT (methadone maintenance treatment) providers (n = 8), and health officials (n = 4) in Hanoi. We explored participants' perceptions of mental health disorders, and barriers and facilitators to seeking and receiving mental health care. RESULTS: HIV-infected PWID were perceived by both PWID, HIV/MMT providers, and health officials to be vulnerable to mental health problems and to have great need for mental health care. Perceived social, physical, and economical barriers included stigma towards HIV, injection drug use, and mental illnesses; lack of awareness around mental health issues; lack of human resources, facilities and information on mental health services; and limited affordability of mental health services. Social support from family and healthcare providers was a perceived facilitator of mental health care. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions should raise self-awareness of HIV-infected PWID about common mental health problems; address social, physical, economic barriers to seeking mental health services; and increase social support for patients.

Estimated impact of supervised injection facilities on overdose fatalities and healthcare costs in New York City.

BACKGROUND: The opioid epidemic in the United States has resulted in over 42,000 U.S. opioid overdose fatalities in 2016 alone. In New York City (NYC) opioid overdoses have reached a record high, increasing from 13.6 overdose deaths/100,000 to 19.9/100,000 from 2015 to 2016. Supervised injection facilities (SIFs) provide a hygienic, safe environment in which pre-obtained drugs can be consumed under clinical supervision to quickly reverse opioid overdoses. While SIFs have been implemented worldwide, none have been implemented to date in the United States. This study estimates the potential impact on opioid overdose fatalities and healthcare system costs of implementing SIFs in NYC. METHODS: A deterministic model was used to project the number of fatal opioid overdoses avoided by implementing SIFs in NYC. Model inputs were from 2015 to 2016 NYC provisional overdose data (N = 1852) and the literature. Healthcare utilization and costs were estimated for fatal overdoses that would have been avoided from implementing one or more SIFs. RESULTS: One optimally placed SIF is estimated to prevent 19-37 opioid overdose fatalities annually, representing a 6-12% decrease in opioid overdose mortality for that neighborhood; four optimally placed SIFs are estimated to prevent 68-131 opioid overdose fatalities. Opioid overdoses cost the NYC healthcare system an estimated $41 million per year for emergency medical services, emergency department visits, and hospitalizations. Implementing one SIF is estimated to save $0.8-$1.6 million, and four SIFs saves $2.9-$5.7 million in annual healthcare costs from opioid overdoses. CONCLUSIONS: Implementing SIFs in NYC would save lives and healthcare system costs, although their overall impact may be limited depending on the geographic characteristic of the local opioid epidemic. In cities with geographically dispersed opioid epidemics such as NYC, multiple SIFs will be required to have a sizeable impact on the total number of opioid overdose fatalities occurring each year.

The case for a universal hepatitis C vaccine to achieve hepatitis C elimination.

BACKGROUND: The introduction of highly effective direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy for hepatitis C has led to calls to eliminate it as a public health threat through treatment-as-prevention. Recent studies suggest it is possible to develop a vaccine to prevent hepatitis C. Using a mathematical model, we examined the potential impact of a hepatitis C vaccine on the feasibility and cost of achieving the global WHO elimination target of an 80% reduction in incidence by 2030 in the era of DAA treatment. METHODS: The model was calibrated to 167 countries and included two population groups (people who inject drugs (PWID) and the general community), features of the care cascade, and the coverage of health systems to deliver services. Projections were made for 2018-2030. RESULTS: The optimal incidence reduction strategy was to implement test and treat programmes among PWID, and in settings with high levels of community transmission undertake screening and treatment of the general population. With a vaccine available, the optimal strategy was to include vaccination within test and treat programmes, in addition to vaccinating adolescents in settings with high levels of community transmission. Of the 167 countries modelled, between 0 and 48 could achieve an 80% reduction in incidence without a vaccine. This increased to 15-113 countries if a 75% efficacious vaccine with a 10-year duration of protection were available. If a vaccination course cost US$200, vaccine use reduced the cost of elimination for 66 countries (40%) by an aggregate of US$7.4 (US$6.6-8.2) billion. For a US$50 per course vaccine, this increased to a US$9.8 (US$8.7-10.8) billion cost reduction across 78 countries (47%). CONCLUSIONS: These findings strongly support the case for hepatitis C vaccine development as an urgent public health need, to ensure hepatitis C elimination is achievable and at substantially reduced costs for a majority of countries.

Cost-effectiveness of scaling-up HCV prevention and treatment in the United States for people who inject drugs.

AIMS: To examine the cost-effectiveness of hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment of people who inject drugs (PWID), combined with medication-assisted treatment (MAT) and syringe-service programs (SSP), to tackle the increasing HCV epidemic in the United States. DESIGN: HCV transmission and disease progression models with cost-effectiveness analysis using a health-care perspective. SETTING: Rural Perry County, KY (PC) and urban San Francisco, CA (SF), USA. Compared with PC, SF has a greater proportion of PWID with access to MAT or SSP. HCV treatment of PWID is negligible in both settings. PARTICIPANTS: PWID data were collected between 1998 and 2015 from Social Networks Among Appalachian People, U Find Out, Urban Health Study and National HIV Behavioral Surveillance System studies. INTERVENTIONS AND COMPARATOR: Three intervention scenarios modeled: baseline-existing SSP and MAT coverage with HCV screening and treatment with direct-acting antiviral for ex-injectors only as per standard of care; intervention 1-scale-up of SSP and MAT without changes to treatment; and intervention 2-scale-up as intervention 1 combined with HCV screening and treatment for current PWID. MEASUREMENTS: Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) and uncertainty using cost-effectiveness acceptability curves. Benefits were measured in quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). FINDINGS: For both settings, intervention 2 is preferred to intervention 1 and the appropriate comparator for intervention 2 is the baseline scenario. Relative to baseline, for PC intervention 2 averts 1852 more HCV infections, increases QALYS by 3095, costs $21.6 million more and has an ICER of $6975/QALY. For SF, intervention 2 averts 36 473 more HCV infections, increases QALYs by 7893, costs $872 million more and has an ICER of $11 044/QALY. The cost-effectiveness of intervention 2 was robust to several sensitivity analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Hepatitis C screening and treatment for people who inject drugs, combined with medication-assisted treatment and syringe-service programs, is a cost-effective strategy for reducing hepatitis C burden in the United States.

Cost-effectiveness of integrating buprenorphine-naloxone treatment for opioid use disorder into clinical care for persons with HIV/hepatitis C co-infection who inject opioids.

BACKGROUND: Untreated opioid use disorder (OUD) affects the care of HIV/HCV co-infected people who inject opioids. Despite active injection opioid use, there is evidence of increasing engagement in HIV care and adherence to HIV medications among HIV/HCV co-infected persons. However, less than one-half of this population is offered HCV treatment onsite. Treatment for OUD is also rare and largely occurs offsite. Integrating buprenorphine-naloxone (BUP-NX) into onsite care for HIV/HCV co-infected persons may improve outcomes, but the clinical impact and costs are unknown. We evaluated the clinical impact, costs, and cost-effectiveness of integrating (BUP-NX) into onsite HIV/HCV treatment compared with the status quo of offsite referral for medications for OUD. METHODS: We used a Monte Carlo microsimulation of HCV to compare two strategies for people who inject opioids: 1) standard HIV care with onsite HCV treatment and referral to offsite OUD care (status quo) and 2) standard HIV care with onsite HCV and BUP-NX treatment (integrated care). Both strategies assume that all individuals are already in HIV care. Data from national databases, clinical trials, and cohorts informed model inputs. Outcomes included mortality, HCV reinfection, quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), costs (2017 US dollars), and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios. RESULTS: Integrated care reduced HCV reinfections by 7%, cases of cirrhosis by 1%, and liver-related deaths by 3%. Compared to the status quo, this strategy also resulted in an estimated 11/1,000 fewer non-liver attributable deaths at one year and 28/1,000 fewer of these deaths at five years, at a cost-effectiveness ratio of $57,100/QALY. Integrated care remained cost-effective in sensitivity analyses that varied the proportion of the population actively injecting opioids, availability of BUP-NX, and quality of life weights. CONCLUSIONS: Integrating BUP-NX for OUD into treatment for HIV/HCV co-infected adults who inject opioids increases life expectancy and is cost-effective at a $100,000/QALY threshold.

HIV risk behaviours among women who inject drugs in coastal Kenya: findings from secondary analysis of qualitative data.

BACKGROUND: Injecting drug users are at high risk of HIV infection globally. Research related to female drug users is rare in Kenya, yet it is required to inform the development of gender-sensitive HIV prevention and harm reduction services in East Africa, where injecting drug use is on the rise. METHODS: This study aimed to document the nature of HIV risks encountered by women who inject drugs in the Mombasa and Kilifi, Kenya. Secondary data analysis was conducted on an existing dataset from a 2015 primary qualitative study involving 24 interviews and 3 focus group discussions with 45 women who inject drugs. These were complemented with five interviews with key stakeholders involved in the provision of services to women who inject drugs. Guided by the social ecology theory, a thematic analysis was conducted to identify the nature of HIV risks and their underlying determinants. RESULTS: HIV risk behaviours fell into two broad categories: unsafe injecting and unprotected sex. These risks occurred in the form of sharing of needles, unprotected oral, anal, and vaginal sex, sexual assaults, injecting drug use during sex, sex work, and other types of transactional sex. The primary determinants underlying these risks were a low-risk perception, inequitable gender power, economic pressures, and poor availability of needles and condoms. These social-ecological determinants did not exist in isolation, but intersected with each other to create powerful influences which exposed women to HIV. Social-ecological determinants exerted constant influence and created a persistent 'HIV risk environment' that was involuntarily experienced by women. CONCLUSION: Individual, interpersonal, and societal-structural factors intersect to produce HIV risk behaviours. As a minimum, these risks will require a combination of multifaceted micro-level interventions including self-efficacy training, risk assessment skills, couple counselling, and universal access to the recommended harm reduction package. In addition, the current focus on micro-level interventions in Kenya needs to shift to incorporate macro-level interventions, including livelihood, employability, and gender norms-transforming interventions, to mitigate economic and gender-related drivers of HIV risks. In the Kenyan context, injecting drug use during sex work is emerging as an increasingly important HIV risk behaviour needing to be addressed.

The projected costs and benefits of a supervised injection facility in Seattle, WA, USA.

BACKGROUND: As one strategy to improve the health and survival of people who inject drugs, the King County Heroin & Opioid Addiction Task Force recommended the establishment of supervised injection facilities (SIF) where people can inject drugs in a safe and hygienic environment with clinical supervision. Analyses for other sites have found them to be cost-effective, but it is not clear whether these findings are transferable to other settings. METHODS: We utilized local estimates and other data sources deemed appropriate for our setting to implement a mathematical model that assesses the impact of a hypothetical SIF on overdose deaths, non-fatal overdose health service utilization, skin and soft tissue infections, bacterial infections, viral infections, and enrollment in medication assisted treatment (MAT). We estimated the costs and savings that would occur on an annual basis for a small-scale pilot site given current overdose rates, as well as three other scenarios of varying scale and underlying overdose rates. RESULTS: Assuming current overdose rates, a hypothetical Seattle SIF in a pilot phase is projected to annually reverse 167 overdoses and prevent 6 overdose deaths, 45 hospitalizations, 90 emergency department visits, and 92 emergency medical service deployments. Additionally, the site would facilitate the enrollment of 41 SIF clients in medication assisted treatment programs. These health benefits correspond to a monetary value of $5,156,019. The annual estimated cost of running the SIF is $1,222,332. The corresponding cost-benefit ratio suggests that the pilot SIF would generate $4.22 for every dollar spent on SIF operational costs. The pilot SIF is projected to save the healthcare system $534,453. If Seattle experienced elevated overdose rates and Seattle SIF program were scaled up, the health benefits and financial value would be considerably greater. CONCLUSION: This analysis suggests that a SIF program in Seattle would save lives and result in considerable health benefits and cost savings.

Increasing incidence of IV-drug use associated endocarditis in southern West Virginia and potential economic impact.

BACKGROUND: The opioid crisis has disproportionally affected Appalachia. One of the potentially lethal and costly complications associated with IV drug use is infective endocarditis (IE). The goal of this study was to assess the trend and costs of substance abuse associated IE admissions in Southern West Virginia. METHODS: This is a retrospective analysis of cost, incidence, and geographic patterns of all patients admitted over the last decade with concomitant drug abuse (cocaine, amphetamine, sedative, and other/mixed drug abuse) and IE in the largest tertiary care center for Southern West Virginia. A time series model was used to investigate the effect of drug use on the incidence of IE. RESULTS: A total of 462 patients were hospitalized with IE and concomitant illicit drug use. IE cases increased from 26 admissions in 2008 to 66 in 2015. Patterns of increases in mixed drug use (DRG most often associated with IV drug use in our center) mirrored increases in IE (P = 0.001). From 2008 to 2015, the total hospital charges were $17 306 464 on 462 cases of illicit drug associated IE. Only a fraction of the billed fees (22%) was collected ($3 829 701). CONCLUSIONS: The number of patients hospitalized with IE has dramatically increased over the last decade in a pattern that mirrors the increase in mixed drug use. The majority of payers were from underfunded state programs or private pay and thus, only 22% of the hospital charges were paid, leaving a hospital deficit of over $13 476 763 during the study period.

Estimating the prevalence of hepatitis C among intravenous drug users in upper middle income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

AIM: This systematic review and meta-analysis characterizes the prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among intravenous drug users (IDUs) in upper middle-income countries. METHODS: Five databases were searched from 1990-2016 for studies that took place in countries with a GDP per capita of $7,000 to $13,000 USD. The data extraction was performed based on information regarding prevalence, sample size, age of participants, duration of intravenous drug use (IDU), recruitment location, dates of data collection, study design, sampling scheme, type of tests used in identifying antibody reactivity to HCV, and the use of confirmatory tests. The synthesis was performed with a random effects model. The Cochrane statistical Q-test was used to evaluate the statistical heterogeneity of the results. RESULTS: The 33 studies included in the analysis correspond to a sample of seven countries and 23,342 observations. The point prevalence value estimates and confidence intervals of the random effects model were 0.729 and 0.644-0.800, respectively for all seven countries, and were greatest for China (0.633; 0.522-0.732) as compared to Brazil (0.396; 0.249-0.564). Prevalence for Montenegro (0.416; 0.237-0.621) and Malaysia (0.475; 0.177-0.792) appear to be intermediate. Mexico (0.960) and Mauritania (0.973) had only one study with the largest prevalence. A clear association was not observed between age or duration of IDU and prevalence of HCV, but the data from some groups may indicate a possible relationship. The measures of heterogeneity (Q and I2) suggest a high level of heterogeneity in studies conducted at the country level and by groups of countries. CONCLUSIONS: In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we found that the pooled prevalence of HCV was high (0.729) among a group of seven upper middle income countries. However, there was significant variation in the prevalence of HCV observed in China (0.633) and Brazil (0.396).

Health insurance coverage is associated with access to substance use treatment among individuals with injection drug use: Evidence from a 12-year prospective study.

OBJECTIVE: Understand how insurance impacts access to services among people who have injected drugs. METHODS: 1748 adults who have injected drugs were assessed at twice-annual study visits between 2006 and 2017 (18,869 visits). Use of specialty substance use treatment, receipt of buprenorphine, and having a regular source of medical care were assessed for association with concurrent insurance coverage. Random intercept logistic regression was used to adjust for potential confounders. RESULTS: When participants acquired insurance, they were more likely to report specialty substance use treatment (aOR 2.0, 95% CI 1.6 to 2.5), a buprenorphine prescription (aOR 3.3, 95% CI 2.0 to 5.5), and a regular source of medical care (aOR 6.3, 95% CI 5.1 to 7.8). CONCLUSION: Insurance is associated with increased use of three important services for individuals who inject drugs. IMPLICATIONS: Expanding insurance may facilitate access to substance use treatment and other needed health services.

Associating conditional cash transfer to universal access to treatment could be the solution to the HCV epidemic among drug users (DUs).

BACKGROUND: To understand the limits of HCV screening programs to reach all drug users (DUs). METHOD: The association of the recruitment of a representative sample of a population of DUs in a specific area with the use of a questionnaire that included 250 items allowed the use of uni- and multifactorial analysis to explore the relationship between HCV screening and dimensions until now restricted to qualitative studies. RESULTS: We recruited, in less than 2 months, 327 DUs representing about 6% of the total population of DUs. They belonged to a single community whose drug use was the only common characteristic. While almost all DUs (92.6%) who had access to care providers had been screened, this proportion was much lower in out-of-care settings (64%). HCV prevalence among those who had performed a test was low (22.8%). For DUs, the life experience of hepatitis C has not changed in the last 10 years. Screening, studied for the first time according to this life experience, was not influenced by a rational knowledge of the risk taken or the knowledge of treatment efficacy, showing a gap between DUs' representations and medical recommendations which explains the low level of active screening. Police crackdown on injections, disrupting the previous illusion of safe practices, was the only prior history leading to active screenings. Screenings were related to an access to care providers. GPs held a preponderant position as a source of information and care by being able to give appropriate answers regarding hepatitis C and prescribing opioid substitution treatments (OST). If 48 % of DUs screened positive for HCV had been treated, half of them had been prescribed before 2006. CONCLUSION: While hepatitis has become a major issue for society and, consequently, for services for DUs (SDUs) and GPs, it is not the case for DUs. A widespread screening, even in a city where the offer of care is diversified and free, seems unlikely to reach a universal HCV screening over a short time. The model of respondent-driven sampling recruitment could be a new approach to conditional cash transfer, recruiting and treating DUs who remain outside the reach of care providers, a prerequisite for the universal access to HCV treatments to impact the HCV epidemic.