Therapeutic efficacy of FASN inhibition in preclinical models of HCC.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Aberrant activation of fatty acid synthase (FASN) is a major metabolic event during the development of HCC. We evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of TVB3664, a FASN inhibitor, either alone or in combination, for HCC treatment. APPROACH AND RESULTS: The therapeutic efficacy and the molecular pathways targeted by TVB3664, either alone or with tyrosine kinase inhibitors or the checkpoint inhibitor anti-programmed death ligand 1 antibody, were assessed in human HCC cell lines and multiple oncogene-driven HCC mouse models. RNA sequencing was performed to elucidate the effects of TVB3664 on global gene expression and tumor metabolism. TVB3664 significantly ameliorated the fatty liver phenotype in the aged mice and AKT-induced hepatic steatosis. TVB3664 monotherapy showed moderate efficacy in NASH-related murine HCCs, induced by loss of phosphatase and tensin homolog and MET proto-oncogene, receptor tyrosine kinase (c-MET) overexpression. TVB3664, in combination with cabozantinib, triggered tumor regression in this murine model but did not improve the responsiveness to immunotherapy. Global gene expression revealed that TVB3664 predominantly modulated metabolic processes, whereas TVB3664 synergized with cabozantinib to down-regulate multiple cancer-related pathways, especially the AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin pathway and cell proliferation genes. TVB3664 also improved the therapeutic efficacy of sorafenib and cabozantinib in the FASN-dependent c-MYC-driven HCC model. However, TVB3664 had no efficacy nor synergistic effects in FASN-independent murine HCC models. CONCLUSIONS: This preclinical study suggests the limited efficacy of targeting FASN as monotherapy for HCC treatment. However, FASN inhibitors could be combined with other drugs for improved effectiveness. These combination therapies could be developed based on the driver oncogenes, supporting precision medicine approaches for HCC treatment.

Fatty Acid Synthase-Suppressor Screening Identifies Sorting Nexin 8 as a Therapeutic Target for NAFLD.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: NAFLD is the most prevalent chronic liver disease without any Food and Drug Administration-approved pharmacological intervention in clinic. Fatty acid synthase (FASN) is one of the most attractive targets for NAFLD treatment because of its robust rate-limiting capacity to control hepatic de novo lipogenesis. However, the regulatory mechanisms of FASN in NAFLD and potential therapeutic strategies targeting FASN remain largely unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS: Through a systematic interactomics analysis of FASN-complex proteins, we screened and identified sorting nexin 8 (SNX8) as a binding partner of FASN. SNX8 directly bound to FASN and promoted FASN ubiquitination and subsequent proteasomal degradation. We further demonstrated that SNX8 mediated FASN protein degradation by recruiting the E3 ligase tripartite motif containing 28 (TRIM28) and enhancing the TRIM28-FASN interaction. Notably, Snx8 interference in hepatocytes significantly deteriorated lipid accumulation in vitro, whereas SNX8 overexpression markedly blocked hepatocyte lipid deposition. Furthermore, the aggravating effect of Snx8 deletion on NAFLD was validated in vivo as hepatic steatosis and lipogenic pathways in the liver were significantly exacerbated in Snx8-knockout mice compared to wild-type controls. Consistently, hepatocyte-specific overexpression of Snx8 in vivo markedly suppressed high-fat, high-cholesterol diet (HFHC)-induced hepatic steatosis. Notably, the protective effect of SNX8 against NAFLD was largely dependent on FASN suppression. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that SNX8 is a key suppressor of NAFLD that promotes FASN proteasomal degradation. Targeting the SNX8-FASN axis is a promising strategy for NAFLD prevention and treatment.

TVB-2640 (FASN Inhibitor) for the Treatment of Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis: FASCINATE-1, a Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Phase 2a Trial.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Increased de novo lipogenesis creates excess intrahepatic fat and lipotoxins, propagating liver damage in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. TVB-2640, a fatty acid synthase inhibitor, was designed to reduce excess liver fat and directly inhibit inflammatory and fibrogenic pathways. We assessed the safety and efficacy of TVB-2640 in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in the United States. METHODS: 3V2640-CLIN-005 (FASCINATE-1) was a randomized, placebo-controlled, single-blind study at 10 US sites. Adults with ≥8% liver fat, assessed by magnetic resonance imaging proton density fat fraction, and evidence of liver fibrosis by magnetic resonance elastography ≥2.5 kPa or liver biopsy were eligible. Ninety-nine patients were randomized to receive placebo or 25 mg or 50 mg of TVB-2640 (orally, once-daily for 12 weeks). The primary end points of this study were safety and relative change in liver fat after treatment. RESULTS: Liver fat increased in the placebo cohort by 4.5% relative to baseline; in contrast TVB-2640 reduced liver fat by 9.6% in the 25-mg cohort (n = 30; least squares mean: -15.5%; 95% confidence interval, -31.3 to -0.23; P = .053), and 28.1% in the 50-mg cohort (n = 28; least squares mean: -28.0%; 95% confidence interval, -44.5 to -11.6; P = .001). Eleven percent of patients in the placebo group achieved a ≥30% relative reduction of liver fat compared to 23% in the 25-mg group, and 61% in the 50-mg group (P < .001). Secondary analyses showed improvements of metabolic, pro-inflammatory and fibrotic markers. TVB-2640 was well tolerated; adverse events were mostly mild and balanced among the groups. CONCLUSIONS: TVB-2640 significantly reduced liver fat and improved biochemical, inflammatory, and fibrotic biomarkers after 12 weeks, in a dose-dependent manner in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. ClinicalTrials.gov, Number NCT03938246.

Effects of orlistat combined with enzalutamide and castration through inhibition of fatty acid synthase in a PC3 tumor-bearing mouse model.

Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is one of the typical treatments used for patients with prostate cancer (PCa). ADT, however, may fail when PCa develops castration-resistance. Fatty acid synthase (FASN), a critical enzyme involved in fatty acid synthesis, is found to be up-regulated in PCa. Since enzalutamide and ADT are frequently used for the treatment of PCa, the present study aimed to unravel the underlying mechanism of combination of orlistat, an FASN inhibitor, and enzalutamide using PC3 cell line; and orlistat and castration in PC3 tumor-bearing animal model. Cytotoxicity was determined by AlamarBlue assay. Drug effects on the cell cycle and protein expressions were assayed by the flow cytometry and Western blot. Electromobility shift assay was used to evaluate the NF-κB activity. The tumor growth delay, expressions of the signaling-related proteins, and histopathology post treatments of orlistat and castration were evaluated in PC3 tumor-bearing mouse model. The results showed that orlistat arrested the PC3 cells at the G1 phase of the cell cycle and enhanced the cytotoxic effects of enzalutamide synergistically. Pretreatment with orlistat combined with castration inhibited the tumor growth significantly compared with those of castration and orlistat treatments alone in PC3 tumor-bearing mice. Combination treatment reduced both FASN and NF-κB activities and their downstream effector proteins. The present study demonstrated the synergistic effects of orlistat combined with enzalutamide in vitro and castration in vivo on human PCa.

FASN inhibition as a potential treatment for endocrine-resistant breast cancer.

PURPOSE: The majority of breast cancers are estrogen receptor (ERα) positive making endocrine therapy a mainstay for these patients. Unfortunately, resistance to endocrine therapy is a common occurrence. Fatty acid synthase (FASN) is a key enzyme in lipid biosynthesis and its expression is commensurate with tumor grade and resistance to numerous therapies. METHODS: The effect of the FASN inhibitor TVB-3166 on ERα expression and cell growth was characterized in tamoxifen-resistant cell lines, xenografts, and patient explants. Subcellular localization of ERα was assessed using subcellular fractionations. Palmitoylation and ubiquitination of ERα were assessed by immunoprecipitation. ERα and p-eIF2α protein levels were analyzed by Western blotting after treatment with TVB-3166 with or without the addition of palmitate or BAPTA. RESULTS: TVB-3166 treatment leads to a marked inhibition of proliferation in tamoxifen-resistant cells compared to the parental cells. Additionally, TVB-3166 significantly inhibited tamoxifen-resistant breast tumor growth in mice and decreased proliferation of primary tumor explants compared to untreated controls. FASN inhibition significantly reduced ERα levels most prominently in endocrine-resistant cells and altered its subcellular localization. Furthermore, we showed that the reduction of ERα expression upon TVB-3166 treatment is mediated through the induction of endoplasmic reticulum stress. CONCLUSION: Our preclinical data provide evidence that FASN inhibition by TVB-3166 presents a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of endocrine-resistant breast cancer. Further clinical development of FASN inhibitors for endocrine-resistant breast cancer should be considered.

Fatty acid synthase inhibition ameliorates diabetes induced liver injury in rodent experimental model.

The abnormal dietary life style leads to hyperlipidemia and insulin resistance with ectopic lipid accumulation and elevated levels of hepatic glucose development which are the underlying pathological characteristics of fatty liver diseases. The pharmacological inhibition of fatty acid synthase of de novo lipogenesis may regulate the dysfunctional lipid biotransformation and reverse the pathological state of diabetic liver injury. The three pharmacological interventions (PTS; Pterostilbene, ARB; Arbutin, PUR; Purpurin) were administered to manage the condition of diabetic liver injury against the high fat diet (HFD) + Streptozotocin (STZ) 30 mg/kg b.wt. rodent animal model to observe the effect of abnormal fatty acid synthesis. The qRT-PCR was used to evaluate the fatty acid synthase (FASN) expression which is independently allied with diabetes associated fatty liver disorders. To determine the therapeutic potential of three selected drugs, the biochemical parameters and histopathological considerations were utilized. Three subsequent dosage of PTS, ARB and PUR administered (i.e., 30,60 & 120 mg/kg/p.o.) for five weeks significantly alter the serum parameters, oxidative burden in HFD-STZ which, in turn, resulted in diabetic liver injury. It was also revealed that increased mRNA expression of fatty acid synthase (FASN), which is known to promote abnormal fatty acid synthesis through different molecular signaling pathways, was associated with the development of diabetes associated liver injury, this expression was observed to be significantly suppressed by PTS, ARB and PUR treatment. Moreover, the studies of histopathology showed that there was substantial structural improvement after PTS, ARB and PUR treatment. All three selected drugs have been shown to be effective for Diabetic liver injury (DLI) care but PTS shows impressive results compared to other selected drugs.

Proton pump inhibitors suppress DNA damage repair and sensitize treatment resistance in breast cancer by targeting fatty acid synthase.

Human fatty acid synthase (FASN) is the sole cytosolic enzyme responsible for de novo lipid synthesis. FASN is essential for cancer cell survival and contributes to drug and radiation resistance by up-regulating DNA damage repair but not required for most non-lipogenic tissues. Thus, FASN is an attractive target for drug discovery. However, despite decades of effort in targeting FASN, no FASN inhibitors have been approved due to poor pharmacokinetics or toxicities. Here, we show that the FDA-approved proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) effectively inhibit FASN and suppress breast cancer cell survival. PPI inhibition of FASN leads to suppression of non-homologous end joining repair of DNA damages by reducing FASN-mediated PARP1 expression, resulting in apoptosis from oxidative DNA damages and sensitization of cellular resistance to doxorubicin and ionizing radiation. Mining electronic medical records of 6754 breast cancer patients showed that PPI usage significantly increased overall survival and reduced disease recurrence of these patients. Hence, PPIs may be repurposed as anticancer drugs for breast cancer treatments by targeting FASN to overcome drug and radiation resistance.

Mouse Model for Efficient Simultaneous Targeting of Glycolysis, Glutaminolysis, and De Novo Synthesis of Fatty Acids in Colon Cancer.

Colon cancer is a highly anabolic entity with upregulation of glycolysis, glutaminolysis, and de novo synthesis of fatty acids, which also induces a hypercatabolic state in the patient. The blockade of either cancer anabolism or host catabolism has been previously proven to be a successful anticancer experimental treatment. However, it is still unclear whether the simultaneous blockade of both metabolic counterparts can limit malignant survival and the energetic consequences of such an approach. In this chapter, by using the CT26.WT murine colon adenocarcinoma cell line as a model of study, we provide a method to simultaneously perform a pharmacological blockade of tumor anabolism and host catabolism, as a feasible therapeutic approach to treat cancer, and to limit its energetic supply.

Progesterone receptor isoform-dependent cross-talk between prolactin and fatty acid synthase in breast cancer.

Progesterone receptor (PR) isoforms can drive unique phenotypes in luminal breast cancer (BC). Here, we hypothesized that PR-B and PR-A isoforms differentially modify the cross-talk between prolactin and fatty acid synthase (FASN) in BC. We profiled the responsiveness of the FASN gene promoter to prolactin in T47Dco BC cells constitutively expressing PR-A and PR-B, in the PR-null variant T47D-Y cell line, and in PR-null T47D-Y cells engineered to stably re-express PR-A (T47D-YA) or PR-B (T47D-YB). The capacity of prolactin to up-regulate FASN gene promoter activity in T47Dco cells was lost in T47D-Y and TD47-YA cells. Constitutively up-regulated FASN gene expression in T47-YB cells and its further stimulation by prolactin were both suppressed by the prolactin receptor antagonist hPRL-G129R. The ability of the FASN inhibitor C75 to decrease prolactin secretion was more conspicuous in T47-YB cells. In T47D-Y cells, which secreted notably less prolactin and downregulated prolactin receptor expression relative to T47Dco cells, FASN blockade resulted in an augmented secretion of prolactin and up-regulation of prolactin receptor expression. Our data reveal unforeseen PR-B isoform-specific regulatory actions in the cross-talk between prolactin and FASN signaling in BC. These findings might provide new PR-B/FASN-centered predictive and therapeutic modalities in luminal intrinsic BC subtypes.

Membrane disruption, but not metabolic rewiring, is the key mechanism of anticancer-action of FASN-inhibitors: a multi-omics analysis in ovarian cancer.

Fatty-acid(FA)-synthase(FASN) is a druggable lipogenic oncoprotein whose blockade causes metabolic disruption. Whether drug-induced metabolic perturbation is essential for anticancer drug-action, or is just a secondary-maybe even a defence response-is still unclear. To address this, SKOV3 and OVCAR3 ovarian cancer(OC) cell lines with clear cell and serous histology, two main OC subtypes, were exposed to FASN-inhibitor G28UCM. Growth-inhibition was compared with treatment-induced cell-metabolomes, lipidomes, proteomes and kinomes. SKOV3 and OVCAR3 were equally sensitive to low-dose G28UCM, but SKOV3 was more resistant than OVCAR3 to higher concentrations. Metabolite levels generally decreased upon treatment, but individual acylcarnitines, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, amino-acids, biogenic amines, and monosaccharides reacted differently. Drug-induced effects on central-carbon-metabolism and oxidative-phosphorylation (OXPHOS) were essentially different in the two cell lines, since drug-naïve SKOV3 are known to prefer glycolysis, while OVCAR3 favour OXPHOS. Moreover, drug-dependent increase of desaturases and polyunsaturated-fatty-acids (PUFAs) were more pronounced in SKOV3 and appear to correlate with G28UCM-tolerance. In contrast, expression and phosphorylation of proteins that control apoptosis, FA synthesis and membrane-related processes (beta-oxidation, membrane-maintenance, transport, translation, signalling and stress-response) were concordantly affected. Overall, membrane-disruption and second-messenger-silencing were crucial for anticancer drug-action, while metabolic-rewiring was only secondary and may support high-dose-FASN-inhibitor-tolerance. These findings may guide future anti-metabolic cancer intervention.

Fatty acid synthase, a novel poor prognostic factor for acute lymphoblastic leukemia which can be targeted by ginger extract.

Altered metabolism of fatty acid synthesis is considered a hallmark characteristic of several malignancies, including acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). To evaluate the impact of fatty acid synthase (FASN) on drug resistant ALL, bone marrow samples were collected from 65 pediatric ALLs, including 40 de novo and 25 relapsed patients. 22 non-cancer individuals were chosen as controls. Quantitative RT-PCR showed increased expression levels of FASN in drug resistant patients compared with the therapy responders. Single and combined treatment of malignant cells were analyzed using Annexin-V/PI double staining and MTT assays. Incubation of resistant primary cells with ginger showed simultaneous increased apoptosis rates and reduced FASN expression levels. Furthermore, docking studies demonstrated high affinity bindings between ginger derivatives and FASN thioesterase and ketosynthase domains, compared with their known inhibitors, fenofibrate and morin, respectively. Finally, combined treatment of in-house multidrug resistant T-ALL subline with ginger and dexamethasone induced drug sensitivity and down regulation of FASN expression, accordingly. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that introduces FASN upregulation as a poor prognostic factor for drug resistant childhood ALL. Moreover, it was revealed that FASN inhibition may be applied by ginger phytochemicals and overcome dexamethasone resistance, subsequently.

PdpaMn inhibits fatty acid synthase-mediated glycolysis by down-regulating PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in breast cancer.

Novel manganese complex, PdpaMn ([(Pdpa)MnCl2]), was developed to induce apoptosis in breast cancer cells. The impact of phosphoinositide-(3)-kinase pathway onto fatty acid synthase (FASN) has an effect on cellular metabolism in breast cancer. However, reverse actions from FASN towards PI3K/Akt are still indefinable. Perhaps, loss of FASN could regulate glycolysis. Previously we established that PdpaMn inhibits FASN and involve in mitochondrial function. This study investigated the activity of PdpaMn on glycolysis and its mechanism. PdpaMn was used to suppress FASN expression in tumor. Expression of ATP and lactic acid level was measured to investigate the glycolysis variance in cells and animals. MCF-7 and 4T1 cells were treated with G28UCM, an inhibitor of FASN and PdpaMn, western blotting to detect PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. The capacity of proliferation was investigated by western blotting and immunohistochemistry. PdpaMn selectively inhibits cancer cells and tumor growth but also block FASN expression and suppresses the content of free fatty acid. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDHA) protein level was down-regulated as G28UCM and PdpaMn inhibited FASN, glucose transporter (Glut1), and pyruvate kinase (PKM2) proteins level were not affected. PI3K, p-Akt in the experimental group evidently declined compared to the control group. Proliferation was suppressed in FASN-arbitrated glycolysis. Our study supports the hypothesis that loss of FASN by PdpaMn suppressed glycolysis via down-regulating PI3K/Akt signaling pathway revealing the direct link between FASN and glycolysis. The results have paved the way to unravel the mechanisms of FASN and mitochondrial will be useful for designing novel co-targeting strategies for breast cancer.

Development of cancer metabolism as a therapeutic target: new pathways, patient studies, stratification and combination therapy.

Cancer metabolism has undergone a resurgence in the last decade, 70 years after Warburg described aerobic glycolysis as a feature of cancer cells. A wide range of techniques have elucidated the complexity and heterogeneity in preclinical models and clinical studies. What emerges are the large differences between tissues, tumour types and intratumour heterogeneity. However, synergies with inhibition of metabolic pathways have been found for many drugs and therapeutic approaches, and a critical role of window studies and translational trial design is key to success.

Fatty acid synthase inhibitor orlistat impairs cell growth and down-regulates PD-L1 expression of a human T-cell leukemia line.

Fatty Acid Synthase (FASN) is responsible for the de novo synthesis of fatty acids, which are involved in the preservation of biological membrane structure, energy storage and assembly of factors involved in signal transduction. FASN plays a critical role in supporting tumor cell growth, thus representing a potential target for anti-cancer therapies. Moreover, this enzyme has been recently associated with increased PD-L1 expression, suggesting a role for fatty acids in the impairment of the immune response in the tumor microenvironment. Orlistat, a tetrahydrolipstatin used for the treatment of obesity, has been reported to reduce FASN activity, while inducing a sensible reduction of the growth potential in different cancer models. We have analyzed the effect of orlistat on different features involved in the tumor cell biology of the T-ALL Jurkat cell line. In particular, we have observed that orlistat inhibits Jurkat cell growth and induces a perturbation of cell cycle along with a decline of FASN activity and protein levels. Moreover, the drug produces a remarkable impairment of PD-L1 expression. These findings suggest that orlistat interferes with different mechanisms involved in the control of tumor cell growth and can potentially contribute to decrease the tumor-associated immune-pathogenesis.

Fatty Acid Inhibition Sensitizes Androgen-Dependent and -Independent Prostate Cancer to Radiotherapy via FASN/NF-κB Pathway.

Elevated fatty acid synthase (FASN) has been reported in both androgen-dependent and -independent prostate cancers. Conventional treatment for prostate cancer is radiotherapy (RT); however, the following radiation-induced radioresistance often causes treatment failure. Upstream proteins of FASN such as Akt and NF-κB are found increased in the radioresistant prostate cancer cells. Nevertheless, whether inhibition of FASN could improve RT outcomes and reverse radiosensitivity of prostate cancer cells is still unknown. Here, we hypothesised that orlistat, a FASN inhibitor, could improve RT outcomes in prostate cancer. Orlistat treatment significantly reduced the S phase population in both androgen-dependent and -independent prostate cancer cells. Combination of orlistat and RT significantly decreased NF-κB activity and related downstream proteins in both prostate cancer cells. Combination effect of orlistat and RT was further investigated in both LNCaP and PC3 tumour-bearing mice. Combination treatment showed the best tumour inhibition compared to that of orlistat alone or RT alone. These results suggest that prostate cancer treated by conventional RT could be improved by orlistat via inhibition of FASN.

Galloyl esters of trans-stilbenes are inhibitors of FASN with anticancer activity on non-small cell lung cancer cells.

Fatty acid synthase (FASN) is a lipogenic enzyme that is selectively upregulated in malignant cells. There is growing consensus on the oncogenicity of FASN-driven lipogenesis and the potential of FASN as a druggable target in cancer. Here, we report the synthesis and FASN inhibitory activities of two novel galloyl esters of trans-stilbene EC1 and EC5. Inhibition of FASN was accompanied by a loss in AKT activation and profound apoptosis in several non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells at the growth inhibitory concentrations of EC1 and EC5. Both FASN and phospho-AKT levels were concurrently downregulated. However, addition of a lipid concentrate to the treated cells reinstated cell viability and reversed the loss of FASN and AKT protein levels, thus recapitulating the causal relationship between FASN inhibition and the loss in cell viability.

Mitochondrial targeting nano-curcumin for attenuation on PKM2 and FASN.

Tumor cells are sensitive to the disturbance of mitochondrial functions. Attenuation of dysfunctional mitochondria by natural compounds is an emerging strategy for the recovery of abnormal energy metabolism of cancer. To develop a nano-sized curcumin (CUR) in attenuating the energy metabolism of cancer cells, herein, a coral-shaped nano-transporter DNA-FeS2-DA nanoparticle was synthesized using double-stranded DNA rich in 'GAG' and 'GC' series as a template and poly-dopamine as an adhesive. CUR was successfully loaded to DNA-FeS2-DA with a molar ratio of ssDNA: CUR of 1:16, forming CUR@DNA-FeS2-DA. This nano-curcumin can readily enter mitochondrion in MCF-7 cancer cells. The CUR@DNA-FeS2-DA nanocomposite displays desirable photothermal effect and stability, while its CUR can be released gradually in the weak acid environment. The expression of both pyruvate kinase M2 and fatty acid synthase in the MCF-7 cancer cells were noticeably inhibited by CUR@DNA-FeS2-DA. Given the controlled release and mitochondria-targeting properties, this CUR@DNA-FeS2-DA nanocomposite is a promising new drug entity for intervening the energy metabolism of cancer cells.

Osajin displays potential antiprostate cancer efficacy via impairment of fatty acid synthase and androgen receptor expression.

BACKGROUND: Currently, antiprostate cancer (PCa) drugs, including androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), are initially effective; however, most patients with PCa who receive ADT eventually progress to deadly aggressiveness. There is an urgent need to seek alternative strategies to cure this lethal disease. Activation of lipogenesis has been demonstrated to lead to PCa progression. Therefore, targeting the aberrant lipogenic activity could be developed therapeutically in PCa. The aim of this study is to investigate the molecular basis and efficacy of osajin, a bioactive prenylated isoflavonoid, in PCa. METHODS: PCa cells, LNCaP (androgen-sensitive) and C4-2 (androgen-insensitive/castration-resistant), were used in this study. Proliferation, migration, and invasion analyses were conducted by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) method, a wound healing assay, and the transwell method. Lipogenesis was determined by a Fatty Acid Quantification Kit and oil red O staining. Apoptosis was assessed by annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate/propidium iodide staining, caspase enzymatic activity, and Western blot analyses. RESULTS: Osajin inhibited fatty acid synthase (FASN) expression, a key enzyme for lipogenesis, in PCa cells. By inhibiting FASN, osajin decreased the fatty-acid levels and lipid accumulation. Significantly, osajin downregulated androgen receptor (AR) and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in PCa cells. Moreover, osajin suppressed PCa cell growth, migration, and invasion. Through activation of the caspase-dependent pathway, osajin induced apoptosis in PCa cells. CONCLUSIONS: These data provide a novel molecular basis of osajin in PCa cells, and cotargeting lipogenesis and the AR axis via impairment of FASN and AR expression by osajin could be applied as a new and promising approach for the treatment of malignant PCa.

In Vivo Effectiveness of Orlistat in the Suppression of Human Colorectal Cancer Cell Proliferation.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Fatty acid synthase (FASN) provides palmitate for cell membrane formation in colorectal cancer (CRC) cells, however, palmitate is also available in the blood of CRC patients. The aim of this study was to examine whether orlistat, a FASN inhibitor, is able to attenuate CRC cell growth despite the availability of extracellular palmitate. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Palmitate concentrations were measured in serum from CRC patients and healthy controls. HT-29 CRC cells were treated with orlistat and palmitate. RESULTS: Treatment of CRC cells with orlistat caused a dose-dependent inhibition of cell proliferation. In turn, delivery of extracellular palmitate at doses lower than those found in the serum of CRC patients reversed inhibition by orlistat concentrations of up to 10 µM. CONCLUSION: Inhibition of CRC cell proliferation by orlistat is reversed by palmitate which is present at high levels in the serum. Therefore, orlistat may be effective in vivo only at high concentrations.

Mechanistic MALDI-TOF Cell-Based Assay for the Discovery of Potent and Specific Fatty Acid Synthase Inhibitors.

Human cancers require fatty acid synthase (FASN)-dependent de novo long-chain fatty acid synthesis for proliferation. FASN is therefore an attractive drug target, but fast technologies for reliable label-free cellular compound profiling are lacking. Recently, MALDI-mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) has emerged as an effective technology for discovery of recombinant protein target inhibitors. Here we present an automated, mechanistic MALDI-MS cell assay, which monitors accumulation of the FASN substrate, malonyl-coenzyme A (CoA), in whole cells with limited sample preparation. Profiling of inhibitors, including unpublished compounds, identified compound 1 as the most potent FASN inhibitor (1 nM in A549 cells) discovered to date. Moreover, cellular MALDI-MS assays enable parallel profiling of additional pathway metabolites. Surprisingly, several compounds triggered cytidine 5'-diphosphocholine (CDP-choline) but not malonyl-CoA accumulation indicating that they inhibit diacylglycerol generation but not FASN activity. Taken together, our study suggests that MALDI-MS cell assays may become important tools in drug profiling that provide additional mechanistic insights concerning compound action on metabolic pathways.