The influence of social identity on attitudes toward wildlife.

Wildlife conservation depends on supportive social as well as biophysical conditions. Social identities such as hunter and nonhunter are often associated with different attitudes toward wildlife. However, it is unknown whether dynamics within and among these identity groups explain how attitudes form and why they differ. To investigate how social identities help shape wildlife-related attitudes and the implications for wildlife policy and conservation, we built a structural equation model with survey data from Montana (USA) residents (n = 1758) that tested how social identities affect the relationship between experiences with grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) and attitudes toward the species. Model results (r2 = 0.51) demonstrated that the hunter identity magnified the negative effect of vicarious property damage on attitudes toward grizzly bears (ß = -0.381, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.584 to -0.178, p < 0.001), which in turn strongly influenced acceptance (ß = -0.571, 95% CI: -0.611 to -0.531, p < 0.001). Our findings suggested that hunters' attitudes toward grizzly bears likely become more negative primarily because of in-group social interactions about negative experiences, and similar group dynamics may lead nonhunters to disregard the negative experiences that out-group members have with grizzly bears. Given the profound influence of social identity on human cognitions and behaviors in myriad contexts, the patterns we observed are likely important in a variety of wildlife conservation situations. To foster positive conservation outcomes and minimize polarization, management strategies should account for these identity-driven perceptions while prioritizing conflict prevention and promoting positive wildlife narratives within and among identity groups. This study illustrates the utility of social identity theory for explaining and influencing human-wildlife interactions.

La influencia de la identidad social sobre la actitud hacia la fauna Resumen La conservación de la fauna depende de condiciones de apoyo tanto sociales como biofísicas. La identidad social, como ser cazador o no, con frecuencia está asociada a las diferentes actitudes hacia la fauna. Sin embargo, no sabemos si las dinámicas dentro y entre estos grupos de identidad explican cómo las actitudes se forman y porqué son diferentes. Construimos un modelo de ecuación estructural con información de encuestas realizadas a 1,758 residentes de Montana (Estados Unidos) para conocer cómo la identidad social ayuda a formar la actitud relacionada con la fauna y las implicaciones que tiene para la conservación y políticas de fauna. El modelo analizó cómo la identidad social afecta la relación entre las experiencias con osos pardos (Ursus arctos horribilis) y la actitud hacia la especie. Los resultados del modelo (r2 = 0.51) demostraron que la identidad de cazador aumentaba el efecto negativo del daño indirecto a la propiedad sobre la actitud hacia los osos (ß=­0.381, 95% CI ­0.584 a ­0.178, p<0.001), lo cual en cambio tenía una gran influencia sobre la aceptación (ß=­0.571, 95% CI ­0.611 a ­0.531, p<0.001). Nuestros descubrimientos sugieren que la actitud de los cazadores hacia los osos probablemente se vuelve más negativa principalmente debido a las interacciones sociales del endogrupo en torno a las experiencias negativas; las dinámicas similares pueden llevar a los no cazadores a menospreciar las experiencias negativas que los miembros del exogrupo han tenido con los osos. Dada la influencia profunda que tiene la identidad social sobre la cognición humana y el comportamiento en una miríada de contextos, los patrones que observamos probablemente sean importantes en una variedad de situaciones de conservación de fauna. Para promover los resultados positivos de conservación y minimizar la polarización, las estrategias de manejo deberían considerar estas percepciones influenciadas por la identidad mientras se prioriza la prevención de conflictos y se promueven narrativas positivas de fauna dentro y entre los grupos de identidad. Este estudio demuestra la utilidad que tiene la teoría de identidad social para explicar e influenciar las interacciones humano­fauna.

Mammals responded to reduced road traffic.

COVID-19 restrictions in 2020 reduced traffic worldwide and altered animal movement.

Behavioral responses of terrestrial mammals to COVID-19 lockdowns.

COVID-19 lockdowns in early 2020 reduced human mobility, providing an opportunity to disentangle its effects on animals from those of landscape modifications. Using GPS data, we compared movements and road avoidance of 2300 terrestrial mammals (43 species) during the lockdowns to the same period in 2019. Individual responses were variable with no change in average movements or road avoidance behavior, likely due to variable lockdown conditions. However, under strict lockdowns 10-day 95th percentile displacements increased by 73%, suggesting increased landscape permeability. Animals' 1-hour 95th percentile displacements declined by 12% and animals were 36% closer to roads in areas of high human footprint, indicating reduced avoidance during lockdowns. Overall, lockdowns rapidly altered some spatial behaviors, highlighting variable but substantial impacts of human mobility on wildlife worldwide.

Bird tolerance to humans in open tropical ecosystems.

Animal tolerance towards humans can be a key factor facilitating wildlife-human coexistence, yet traits predicting its direction and magnitude across tropical animals are poorly known. Using 10,249 observations for 842 bird species inhabiting open tropical ecosystems in Africa, South America, and Australia, we find that avian tolerance towards humans was lower (i.e., escape distance was longer) in rural rather than urban populations and in populations exposed to lower human disturbance (measured as human footprint index). In addition, larger species and species with larger clutches and enhanced flight ability are less tolerant to human approaches and escape distances increase when birds were approached during the wet season compared to the dry season and from longer starting distances. Identification of key factors affecting animal tolerance towards humans across large spatial and taxonomic scales may help us to better understand and predict the patterns of species distributions in the Anthropocene.

Social behavior mediates the use of social and personal information in wild jays.

The factors favoring the evolution of certain cognitive abilities in animals remain unclear. Social learning is a cognitive ability that reduces the cost of acquiring personal information and forms the foundation for cultural behavior. Theory predicts the evolutionary pressures to evolve social learning should be greater in more social species. However, research testing this theory has primarily occurred in captivity, where artificial environments can affect performance and yield conflicting results. We compared the use of social and personal information, and the social learning mechanisms used by wild, asocial California scrub-jays and social Mexican jays. We trained demonstrators to solve one door on a multi-door task, then measured the behavior of naïve conspecifics towards the task. If social learning occurs, observations of demonstrators will change the rate that naïve individuals interact with each door. We found both species socially learned, though personal information had a much greater effect on behavior in the asocial species while social information was more important for the social species. Additionally, both species used social information to avoid, rather than copy, conspecifics. Our findings demonstrate that while complex social group structures may be unnecessary for the evolution of social learning, it does affect the use of social versus personal information.

A quantitative assessment of the indirect impacts of human-elephant conflict.

Human-wildlife conflict has direct and indirect consequences for human communities. Understanding how both types of conflict affect communities is crucial to developing comprehensive and sustainable mitigation strategies. We conducted an interview survey of 381 participants in two rural areas in Myanmar where communities were exposed to human-elephant conflict (HEC). In addition to documenting and quantifying the types of direct and indirect impacts experienced by participants, we evaluated how HEC influences people's attitudes towards elephant conservation. We found that 99% of participants suffered from some type of indirect impact from HEC, including fear for personal and family safety from elephants and fear that elephants will destroy their home. Despite experiencing moderate levels of indirect impacts from HEC at the community level, participants expressed attitudes consistent with supporting future elephant conservation programs.

High social status males experience accelerated epigenetic aging in wild baboons.

Aging, for virtually all life, is inescapable. However, within populations, biological aging rates vary. Understanding sources of variation in this process is central to understanding the biodemography of natural populations. We constructed a DNA methylation-based age predictor for an intensively studied wild baboon population in Kenya. Consistent with findings in humans, the resulting 'epigenetic clock' closely tracks chronological age, but individuals are predicted to be somewhat older or younger than their known ages. Surprisingly, these deviations are not explained by the strongest predictors of lifespan in this population, early adversity and social integration. Instead, they are best predicted by male dominance rank: high-ranking males are predicted to be older than their true ages, and epigenetic age tracks changes in rank over time. Our results argue that achieving high rank for male baboons - the best predictor of reproductive success - imposes costs consistent with a 'live fast, die young' life-history strategy.

For most animals, age is one of the strongest predictors of health and survival, but not all individuals age at the same rate. In fact, animals of the same species can have different 'biological ages' even when they have lived the same number of years. In humans and other mammals this variation in aging shows up in chemical modifications known as DNA methylation marks. Some researchers call these marks 'epigenetic', which literally means 'upon the genes'. And some DNA methylation marks change with age, so their combined pattern of change is often called the 'epigenetic clock'. Environmental stressors, such as smoking or lack of physical activity, can make the epigenetic clock 'tick' faster, making the DNA of some individuals appear older than expected based on their actual age in years. These 'biologically older' individuals may also experience a higher risk of age-related disease. Studies in humans have revealed some of the reasons behind this fast biological aging, but it is unclear whether these results apply in the wild. It is possible that early life events trigger changes in the epigenetic clock, affecting health in adulthood. In primates, for example, adversity in early life has known effects on fertility and survival. Low social status also has a negative effect on health. To find out whether early experiences and the social environment affect the epigenetic clock, Anderson, Johnston et al. tracked DNA methylation marks in baboons. This revealed that epigenetic clocks are strong predictors of age in wild primates, but neither early adversity nor the strength of social bonds affected the rate at which the clocks ticked. In fact, it was competition for social status that had the most dramatic effect on the clock's speed. Samples of males taken at different times during their lives showed that their epigenetic clocks sped up or slowed down as they moved up or down the social ladder, reflecting recent social experiences, rather than events early in their lives. On average, epigenetic clock measurements overestimated the age in years of alpha males by almost a year, showing that fighting to be on top comes at a cost. This study highlights one way in which the social environment can influence aging. The next step is to understand how health is affected by the ways that animals attain social status. This could help researchers who study evolution understand how social interactions and environmental conditions affect survival and reproduction. It could also provide insight into the effects of social status on human health and aging.

Human protection drives the emergence of a new coping style in animals.

Wild animals face novel environmental threats from human activities that may occur along a gradient of interactions with humans. Recent work has shown that merely living close to humans has major implications for a variety of antipredator traits and physiological responses. Here, we hypothesize that when human presence protects prey from their genuine predators (as sometimes seen in urban areas and at some tourist sites), this predator shield, followed by a process of habituation to humans, decouples commonly associated traits related to coping styles, which results in a new range of phenotypes. Such individuals are characterized by low aggressiveness and physiological stress responses, but have enhanced behavioral plasticity, boldness, and cognitive abilities. We refer to these individuals as "preactive," because their physiological and behavioral coping style falls outside the classical proactive/reactive coping styles. While there is some support for this new coping style, formal multivariate studies are required to investigate behavioral and physiological responses to anthropogenic activities.

Rhesus macaques build new social connections after a natural disaster.

Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of weather-related disasters such as hurricanes, wildfires, floods, and droughts. Understanding resilience and vulnerability to these intense stressors and their aftermath could reveal adaptations to extreme environmental change. In 2017, Puerto Rico suffered its worst natural disaster, Hurricane Maria, which left 3,000 dead and provoked a mental health crisis. Cayo Santiago island, home to a population of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), was devastated by the same storm. We compared social networks of two groups of macaques before and after the hurricane and found an increase in affiliative social connections, driven largely by monkeys most socially isolated before Hurricane Maria. Further analysis revealed monkeys invested in building new relationships rather than strengthening existing ones. Social adaptations to environmental instability might predispose rhesus macaques to success in rapidly changing anthropogenic environments.

Diet induces parallel changes to the gut microbiota and problem solving performance in a wild bird.

The microbial community in the gut is influenced by environmental factors, especially diet, which can moderate host behaviour through the microbiome-gut-brain axis. However, the ecological relevance of microbiome-mediated behavioural plasticity in wild animals is unknown. We presented wild-caught great tits (Parus major) with a problem-solving task and showed that performance was weakly associated with variation in the gut microbiome. We then manipulated the gut microbiome by feeding birds one of two diets that differed in their relative levels of fat, protein and fibre content: an insect diet (low content), or a seed diet (high content). Microbial communities were less diverse among individuals given the insect compared to those on the seed diet. Individuals were less likely to problem-solve after being given the insect diet, and the same microbiota metrics that were altered as a consequence of diet were also those that correlated with variation in problem solving performance. Although the effect on problem-solving behaviour could have been caused by motivational or nutritional differences between our treatments, our results nevertheless raise the possibility that dietary induced changes in the gut microbiota could be an important mechanism underlying individual behavioural plasticity in wild populations.

Accelerated reproduction is not an adaptive response to early-life adversity in wild baboons.

In humans and other long-lived species, harsh conditions in early life often lead to profound differences in adult life expectancy. In response, natural selection is expected to accelerate the timing and pace of reproduction in individuals who experience some forms of early-life adversity. However, the adaptive benefits of reproductive acceleration following early adversity remain untested. Here, we test a recent version of this theory, the internal predictive adaptive response (iPAR) model, by assessing whether accelerating reproduction following early-life adversity leads to higher lifetime reproductive success. We do so by leveraging 48 y of continuous, individual-based data from wild female baboons in the Amboseli ecosystem in Kenya, including prospective, longitudinal data on multiple sources of nutritional and psychosocial adversity in early life; reproductive pace; and lifetime reproductive success. We find that while early-life adversity led to dramatically shorter lifespans, individuals who experienced early adversity did not accelerate their reproduction compared with those who did not experience early adversity. Further, while accelerated reproduction predicted increased lifetime reproductive success overall, these benefits were not specific to females who experienced early-life adversity. Instead, females only benefited from reproductive acceleration if they also led long lives. Our results call into question the theory that accelerated reproduction is an adaptive response to both nutritional and psychosocial sources of early-life adversity in baboons and other long-lived species.

A preliminary study of mirror-induced self-directed behaviour on wildlife at the Royal Belum Rainforest Malaysia.

Mirror-induced behaviour has been described as a cognitive ability of an animal to self-direct their image in front of the mirror. Most animals when exposed to a mirror responded with a social interactive behaviour such as aggressiveness, exploratory and repetitive behaviour. The objective of this study is to determine the mirror-induced self-directed behaviour on wildlife at the Royal Belum Rainforest, Malaysia. Wildlife species at the Royal Belum Rainforest were identified using a camera traps from pre-determined natural saltlick locations. Acrylic mirrors with steel frame were placed facing the two saltlicks (Sira Batu and Sira Tanah) and the camera traps with motion-detecting infrared sensor were placed at strategically hidden spot. The behavioural data of the animal response to the mirror were analysed using an ethogram procedure. Results showed that barking deer was the species showing the highest interaction in front of the mirror. Elephants displayed self-directed response through inspecting behaviour via usage of their trunk and legs while interacting to the mirror. Interestingly, the Malayan tapir showed startled behaviour during their interaction with the mirror. However, the absence of interactive behaviour of the Malayan tiger signalled a likelihood of a decreased social response behaviour. These results suggested that the ability to self-directed in front of the mirror is most likely related to the new approach to study the neural mechanism and its level of stimulus response in wildlife. In conclusion, research on mirror-induced self-directed behaviour in wildlife will have profound implications in understanding the cognitive ability of wildlife as an effort to enhance the management strategies and conservation.

Circumstances of human conflicts with bears and patterns of bear maul injuries in Bhutan: Review of records 2015-2019.

Bhutan is one of the biological hotspots in the world where humans and natural flora and fauna co-exist in close proximity. Bhutan is home to two species of bears: Sloth Bear and Himalayan Black Bear. Human conflicts with bears are reported from all over the country. This study describes the profile of the victims and the pattern of injury resulting from bear attacks and circumstances around human conflicts with bears in Bhutan between 2015 and 2019. This was a cross-sectional study with a review of hospital records of patients treated at the National Referral Hospital from 01 January 2015 till 31 December 2019. Data were extracted into a structured pro forma and entered into EpiData Entry 3.1 and analysed in STATA 13.1. There were thirty-four patients who were provided care for bear maul injuries, with an average annual caseload of 6.8 cases per year. The injury prevalence was 100% and the kill prevalence was 0%. Bear attacks were reported from fourteen of twenty districts of the country. The mean age of the victims was 49 (±13) years. Males (26, 76%) and farmers (26, 76%) were the common victims; the risk of bear attacks was 0.16 per 100,000 farmers per year. The commonest region of the body attacked was the face (29, 85%) and victims were provided emergency and rehabilitative care within and outside the country. Thirty-three victims (97%) were provided post-exposure prophylaxis for rabies. All victims received antibiotics despite the lack of national guidelines on the choice of antibiotics post-bear maul. Human-bear conflict is multi-faceted, puts a considerable strain on bear-conservation efforts and requires multi-disciplinary efforts in the prevention of human injury and socioeconomic losses.

Wild boar deathbed choice in relation to ASF: Are there any differences between positive and negative carcasses?

African swine fever (ASF) is a fatal, infectious disease affecting wild boars and domestic pigs, mostly resulting in their deaths. Previous studies showed that carcasses of infected wild boars pose a serious threat for ASF virus transmission and leaving of dead bodies in the environment enables persistence of the disease in the given affected area. Therefore, the prompt finding and removal of the carcasses is crucial for effective ASF control. This study reveals habitat preferences of ASF-positive wild boars for their deathbeds, which could greatly improve the effectivity in the search for infected carcasses. The vast majority (71%) of carcasses were found in forests (although forests occupy only 26.6% of the high-risk area - Zlin region, Czech Republic), especially in young forest stands; 91.3% of infected wild boar carcasses, which were found in forests, were in stands of up to 40 years of age, where infected individuals search for calm and quiet places. The preference of younger forest stands is significantly higher for infected individuals (p < 0.001). On meadows, infected individuals preferred a higher herb layer (p = 0.002) compared to non-infected individuals. A higher preference of places more distant from roads and forest edges was observed for the infected individuals as well (p < 0.001 in both cases). No differences in deathbed habitat preference were observed between selected sex-age categories. The distance between carcasses and water source was observed to be dependent on current mean temperature. Carcasses were found closer to the water sources at higher mean temperature. Because of the comparable character of the landscape, presented models are applicable across Central Europe and have the potential to greatly facilitate the search for infected carcasses.

The importance of first impression judgements in interspecies interactions.

Close human-wildlife interactions are rapidly growing, particularly due to wildlife tourism popularity. Using both laboratory and ecological observation studies we explored potential interspecies communication signalling mechanisms underpinning human-animal approach behaviour, which to date have been unclear. First impression ratings (n = 227) of Barbary macaques' social and health traits were related to the macaques' facial morphology and their observed behaviour supporting a shared facial signalling system in primates. These ratings significantly predicted intended approach to the macaques during hypothetical interactions. Finally, real-world interspecies proximity was observed and found to be best predicted by the interaction between human first impression perception and animal behaviour. Specifically, perceived macaque health in interaction with actual macaque dominance drives close interactions despite human proclivity to avoid dominant animals, raising safety concerns in interspecies interactions.

Face-to-face interactions between mothers and female infants in wild bearded capuchin monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus).

Once considered uniquely human, mother-infant face-to-face interactions (FF) were observed in a few captive primates. In these studies, FF were correlated to physical contact suggesting a mechanism mediating proximity between mother and infant, as is the case for humans. We investigated this hypothesis in wild capuchin monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus) during the first year of life of eight female infants. Data were weekly focal-day videos of infants from which we recorded FF with mothers. We expected FF would increase with infants' age (as time in contact with mothers decreased) and would more likely occur in the absence of physical contact between the dyad. There was no effect of age in the proportion of interaction time spent in FF, nor in types of FF. A quarter of FF episodes occurred in the absence of physical contact between the dyad, and in most of them physical contact was resumed following the FF. Contrary to predictions, the stability in the first year, mainly when mothers-female infants were in contact, indicates that FF act primarily promoting opportunities for affective communication and intuitive care. However, we found some supportive evidence for the hypothesis that FF regulate proximity between mother and infant, mainly in resume physical contact.

Gestural communication of wild bonnet macaques in the Bandipur National Park, Southern India.

Nonhuman primate gestures are believed to be crucial evolutionary precursors of human language. Comparative studies on primate gestures in an evolutionary framework have, however, remained largely restricted to the great apes and the potential flexibility and richness of gestural communication in monkeys, especially in the wild, continue to be virtually unknown. In this paper, we followed several criteria, adapted from ape gesture studies, to identify gestures and evaluate their contexts of usage in the repertoire of wild bonnet macaques Macaca radiata in the Bandipur National Park of southern India. This report is the first of its kind to systematically identify gestures in any wild, non-ape species, thus providing a platform for comparative studies across primate taxa, particularly in our efforts to trace out the phylogenetic origins of language-like markers in the primate lineage, earlier than in the great apes.

Mortality, perception, and scale: Understanding how predation shapes space use in a wild prey population.

Attempts to assess behavioral responses of prey to predation risk are often confounded by depredation of prey. Moreover, the scale at which the response of prey is assessed has important implications for discovering how predation risk alters prey behavior. Herein, we assessed space use of wild Ring-necked Pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) in response to spatial and temporal variation in recreational hunting. We radio-marked pheasants and monitored space use at two spatial scales: short-term seasonal home range, and nightly resting locations. Additionally, we considered temporal variation in predation risk by monitoring space use prior to and during the pheasant hunting season. Although we found no change in nightly resting location, pheasants subjected to predation risk expanded their home range and shifted home range location even when invulnerable to predation. Home range formation was plastic, with home ranges expanding and contracting as risk fluctuated before and during the hunting season. Depredation reduced the measured response within the population, obscuring the potential importance of perceived predation risk in shaping prey communities, particularly when not measured at the appropriate scale. By assessing space use of a wild prey population at multiple scales, considering spatial and temporal variation in predation risk, we show that not only does predation risk affect space use, but that the effects at the population level may be challenging to assess when not measured at the appropriate ecological scale because of the direct effects of differential mortality on the same behaviors.

Novel objects elicit greater activation in the basolateral complex of the amygdala of wild rats compared with laboratory rats.

Wild animals tend to avoid novel objects that do not elicit clear avoidance behaviors in domesticated animals. We previously found that the basolateral complex of the amygdala (BLA) and dorsal bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (dBNST) were larger in trapped wild rats compared with laboratory rats. Based on these findings, we hypothesized that the BLA and/or dBNST would be differentially activated when wild and laboratory rats showed different avoidance behaviors towards novel objects. In this study, we placed novel objects at one end of the home cage. We measured the time spent in that half of the cage and expressed the data as a percentage of the time spent in that region with no object placement. We found that this percentage was lower in the wild rats compared with the laboratory rats. These behavioral differences were accompanied by increased Fos expression in the BLA, but not in the dBNST, of the wild rats. These results suggest that wild rats show greater BLA activation compared with laboratory rats in response to novel objects. We also found increased Fos expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, ventral BNST, and ventromedial hypothalamus, but not in the central amygdala of wild rats. Taken together, our data represent new information regarding differences in behavioral and neural responses towards novel objects in wild vs. laboratory rats.

Social attention biases in juvenile wild vervet monkeys: implications for socialisation and social learning processes.

The concept of directed social learning predicts that social learning opportunities for an individual will depend on social dynamics, context and demonstrator identity. However, few empirical studies have examined social attention biases in animal groups. Sex-based and kinship-based biases in social learning and social attention towards females have been shown in a despotic and female philopatric primate: the vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus). The present study examined social attention during the juvenile period. Social attention was recorded through 5-min focal observations during periods of natural foraging. Kin emerged as the most important focus of social attention in juveniles, intensified by biased spatial proximity towards matrilineal related members. The highest-ranking conspecifics were more frequently observed by juveniles than low-ranking ones. Additionally, younger and orphaned juveniles showed higher levels of social attention overall, compared to other age categories. No effect of the juvenile's hierarchical rank was detected, suggesting that the variation in social attention recorded reflects different biases and stages of social learning and socialisation, rather than social anxiety. Juvenile females tended to exhibit a dominance-based bias more strongly than did males. This might be explained by a greater emphasis on attaining social knowledge during juvenile socialisation in the philopatric sex. Moreover, despite a preferred association between juveniles, social attention was more often directed to adults, suggesting that adults may still be more often chosen as a target of attention independent of their dominance rank.