Examination of different definitions of snacking frequency and associations with weight status among U.S. adults.

Snacks, while widely consumed in the United States (U.S.), do not have a standard definition, complicating research to understand associations, if any, with weight status. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the association between snacking frequency and weight status using various snacking definitions that exist in the scientific literature among U.S. adults (NHANES 2013-2016; ≥20y n = 9,711). Four event-based snacking definitions were operationalized including participant-defined snacks, eating events outside of meals, and operationally defined snacks based on absolute thresholds of energy consumed (>50 kcal). Weight status was examined using body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and sagittal abdominal diameter risk. Logistic regression models examined snacking frequency and associations with weight status. Outcomes varied by the definition of a snack employed, but the majority of findings were null. Mean energy from snacks was significantly higher among women with obesity compared to women with normal weight when a snack was defined as any event outside of a typical mealtime (i.e. other than breakfast, lunch, dinner, super, brunch), regardless of whether or not it contributed ≥50 kcal. Further investigation into ingestive behaviors that may influence the relationship between snacking frequency and weight status is needed.

Comparison of methodologies for fat determination and evaluation of calcium and phosphorus content in snacks for dogs / Comparação de metodologias para determinação de gordura e avaliação do conteúdo de cálcio e fósforo em petiscos para cães

In recent years, the relationship between humans and companion animals has tightened considerably and resulted in the expansion of the range of pet food industry products available in the market. In this context, snacks have gained greater popularity as pet owners seek to please their animals by providing such foods. Due to the growing importance of the snack segment, a need exists for accurate information on the nutritional composition of these products, such as fat concentration. No studies were found that evaluated the effectiveness of different methods applied for determining the content of this nutrient in dog snacks. In addition, too much mineral content can pose health risks. Thus, the objective of this study was to compare three methodologies for determining fat in pet snack products. The moisture, calcium and phosphorus content of each was also determined to compare the obtained results with each value stated on their product labels. Fat determination methods evaluated were ether extract (EE), ether extract after acid hydrolysis (EEHA), and fat content obtained from Ankom XT15 analyzer (ANKOM). Twenty-four snacks produced by 17 companies were evaluated. The results of the three methodologies were compared using the Tukey test. The comparison between the results of the laboratory analysis and the values stated on the labels was performed using descriptive statistics. There was no difference between the three methods evaluated (p = 0.34) regarding fat content. Regarding the nutritional compliance of the labels, 25% (n = 6) of the snacks presented higher moisture content than the declared amount, 50% (n = 12) presented lower fat content, 25% (n = 6) lower phosphorus content and, in 50% (n = 12), the calcium content was not within the minimum and maximum range stated on the label. Therefore, due to the absence of difference between the results, any of the three fat determination methodologies could be used. Regarding compliance of labels for calcium, phosphorus and fat content, greater control over the nutritional composition of these foods is required since most pet owners tend to supply large quantities of snacks to dogs, leading to excessive daily energy intake.(AU)

Nos últimos anos a relação entre seres humanos e animais de companhia estreitou-se consideravelmente e houve uma expansão da gama de produtos da indústria pet food disponíveis no mercado. Nesse contexto, os petiscos ganharam maior popularidade, uma vez que os tutores buscam agradar seus pets com esse tipo de alimento. Devido à crescente importância do segmento de petiscos, há a necessidade de informações precisas sobre a composição nutricional desses produtos, como o teor de gordura, uma vez que não foram encontrados estudos que avaliassem a eficácia dos métodos de determinação do teor deste nutriente em petiscos destinados a cães e o excesso de minerais pode implicar em riscos para a saúde. Assim, o presente trabalho comparou três metodologias para determinação de gordura em petiscos para cães, e também determinou os seus respectivos teores de umidade, cálcio e fósforo, cujos resultados foram comparados aos valores declarados pelos fabricantes nos rótulos dos produtos. Os métodos de determinação da gordura avaliados foram: extrato etéreo (EE), extrato etéreo após hidrólise ácida (EEHA) e teor de gordura obtido em analisador Ankom XT15 (ANKOM). Vinte e quatro petiscos produzidos por 17 empresas foram avaliados. Os resultados das três metodologias de determinação da gordura foram comparados com o emprego do teste Tukey. A comparação entre os resultados das análises laboratoriais e os valores declarados nos rótulos foi realizada por meio de estatística descritiva. Não houve diferença entre os três métodos avaliados (p = 0,34) em relação ao teor de gordura dos petiscos examinados. Em relação à conformidade nutricional dos rótulos, 25% (n = 6) dos petiscos apresentaram teor de umidade superior ao declarado, 50% (n = 12) apresentaram menor teor de gordura; 25% (n = 6) menor teor de fósforo e, em 50% (n = 12) deles, o teor de cálcio estava fora da faixa mínima e máxima declarada no rótulo. Portanto, devido à ausência de diferença entre os resultados, as três metodologias de determinação de gordura podem ser utilizadas. Quanto à conformidade dos rótulos em relação aos teores de cálcio, fósforo e gordura, é necessário maior controle sobre a composição nutricional desses alimentos, uma vez que a maioria dos tutores fornece petiscos em elevadas quantidades para os cães, que podem determinar excessivo consumo de energia.(AU)

Associations of Less Healthy Snack Food Consumption with Infant Weight-for-Length Z-Score Trajectories: Findings from the Nurture Cohort Study.

Little is known about the impact of less healthy snack foods on weight trajectories during infancy. This secondary analysis of data from the Nurture cohort explored prospective associations of less healthy snack foods with infant weight trajectories. Pregnant women were recruited and, upon delivery of a single live infant, 666 mothers agreed to participate. Mothers completed sociodemographic and infant feeding questionnaires, and infant anthropometrics were collected during home visits at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. Less healthy snack food consumption was assessed by asking how frequently baby snacks and sweets were consumed each day during the previous three months. Multilevel growth curve models explored associations of baby snacks and sweets with infant weight-for-length (WFL) z-scores. On average, mothers were 27 years old, 71.5% were non-Hispanic Black, and 55.4% had household incomes of ≤$20,000/year. Consumption of less healthy snack foods increased during infancy with a median intake of 3.0 baby snacks/day and 0.7 sweets/day between 10 and 12 months. Growth curve models showed that infants who consumed sweets >2 times/day had significantly higher WFL z-scores during the second half of infancy compared to infants who never consumed sweets. Less healthy snacks may contribute to the risk of obesity during infancy and promoting healthy snack food choices during this critical time is important.

Unhealthy Snack Food and Beverage Consumption Is Associated with Lower Dietary Adequacy and Length-for-Age z-Scores among 12-23-Month-Olds in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Consumption of unhealthy snack foods and beverages (USFBs) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) is rising, with global awareness increasing about risks of overnutrition. However, little is known about the relation between USFB consumption and young children's diet/nutritional outcomes in contexts where nutrient density of complementary foods is often low. OBJECTIVES: This study assessed the association of high USFB consumption, compared with low consumption, with nutrient intakes, dietary adequacy, iron status, and growth in young children in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in a representative sample of 745 primary caregivers of children aged 12-23 mo. Food consumption was measured through quantitative 24-h recalls, and child anthropometric measurements and capillary blood samples were collected. Using adjusted linear/logistic regression models, nutrient intakes, dietary adequacy, length-for-age and weight-for-length z-scores (LAZ and WLZ, respectively), and iron status were compared between lowest and highest tertiles of consumption based on the contribution of USFBs to total energy intakes (TEIs). Mediation of the relation between USFB consumption and LAZ via lowered dietary adequacy was explored using structural equations modeling. RESULTS: On average, USFBs contributed 46.9% of TEI among the highest tertile of consumers, compared with 5.2% of TEI among the lowest. Compared with low-USFB consumers, high-USFB consumers had lower nutrient intakes and a greater proportion were at risk of inadequate intakes for 8 nutrients. Mean LAZ was nearly 0.3 SD lower among high-USFB consumers than low consumers (P = 0.003), with this relationship partially mediated through dietary adequacy. No associations were found with stunting prevalence or iron status. Prevalence of overweight/obesity was low. CONCLUSIONS: In this LMIC context, high USFB consumption among young children was associated with inadequate micronutrient intakes, which can contribute to poor growth outcomes. Addressing increased availability of USFBs in LMIC food systems should be a priority for policies and programs aiming to safeguard child nutrition.

How do adults define the treats they give to children? A thematic analysis.

One in four children on the Island of Ireland are overweight or obese. The consumption of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods such as snacks, contribute to one fifth of children's calorie intake. However the snack food literature has failed to draw firm conclusions between snack food intake and obesity. Within this literature, the word snack and treat are used interchangeably, inconsistently and in differing contexts, which may explain the poor link between snacks or extra foods, and overweight or obesity. There is currently no academic definition of the word 'treat' relevant to an Irish population. Defining how adults perceive the treats they give children is of particular importance in the context of children's diets, and may provide insight into the relative contribution of treats to energy intakes. With ten focus groups of adult caregivers of children, across the Island of Ireland, this study aimed to investigate treat giving behaviour. This research highlights a paradoxical definition of treats: a treat was identified as an energy-dense food that gave pleasure, was deserved and believed to be infrequent; participants perceived this to be the true definition of treats which was coined "real treats". However, in reality, treats were given and consumed frequently, downgrading the status of these treats to "regular treats" which reflected their real-life use. Developing the definition of treats for an adult population, may enhance our understanding of why adults give food treats to children, the role this has on the development of eating habits, the design of interventions and communication strategies to reduce the consumption of non-nutritive foods, labelled by adults as treats.

Nutrients Composition in Fit Snacks Made from Ostrich, Beef and Chicken Dried Meat.

The aim of the study was to compare three types of meat snacks made from ostrich, beef, and chicken meat in relation to their nutrients content including fat, fatty acids, heme iron, and peptides, like anserine and carnosine, from which human health may potentially benefit. Dry meat samples were produced, from one type of muscle, obtained from ostrich (m.ambiens), beef (m. semimembranosus), and broiler chicken meat (m. pectoralis major). The composition of dried ostrich, beef, and chicken meat, with and without spices was compared. We show that meat snacks made from ostrich, beef, and chicken meat were characterized by high concentration of nutrients including proteins, minerals (heme iron especially in ostrich, than in beef), biologically active peptides (carnosine-in beef, anserine-in ostrich then in chicken meat). The, beneficial to human health, n-3 fatty acids levels differed significantly between species. Moreover, ostrich jerky contained four times less fat as compared to beef and half of that in chicken. In conclusion we can say that dried ostrich, beef, and chicken meat could be a good source of nutritional components.

Evaluating the Potential Health and Revenue Outcomes of a 100% Healthy Vending Machine Nutrition Policy at a Large Agency in Los Angeles County, 2013-2015.

CONTEXT: Healthy vending machine policies are viewed as a promising strategy for combating the growing obesity epidemic in the United States. Few studies have evaluated the short- and intermediate-term outcomes of healthy vending policies, especially for interventions that require 100% healthy products to be stocked. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the potential impact of a 100% healthy vending machine nutrition policy. DESIGN: The vendor's quarterly revenue, product sales records, and nutritional information data from 359 unique vending machines were used to conduct a baseline and follow-up policy analysis. SETTING: County of Los Angeles facilities, 2013-2015. PARTICIPANTS: Vending machines in facilities located across Los Angeles County. INTERVENTION: A healthy vending machine policy executed in 2013 that required 100% of all products sold in contracted machines meet specified nutrition standards. OUTCOME MEASURES: Policy adherence; average number of calories, sugar, and sodium in food products sold; revenue change. RESULTS: Policy adherence increased for snacks and beverages sold by the vending machines by 89% and 98%, respectively. Average snack and beverage revenues decreased by 37% and 34%, respectively, during the sampled period. CONCLUSIONS: Although a 100% healthy vending policy represents a promising strategy for encouraging purchases of healthier foods, steps should be taken to counteract potential revenue changes when planning its implementation.

Healthy Snacks: Using Nutrient Profiling to Evaluate the Nutrient-Density of Common Snacks in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify and compare the nutrient-density of commonly consumed snacks using two nutrient-density measures, Nutrient Rich Foods Indices 9.3 (NRF 9.3) and 15.3 (NRF 15.3). DESIGN: Identify commonly consumed categories of snacks and individual snack foods, calculate NRF 9.3 and 15.3 scores, rank snacks by category and by individual food based on nutrient density, compare and contrast scores generated by the two NRF Indices. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: NRF 9.3 and 15.3 scores. ANALYSIS: Averages and standard deviations of nutrient-density scores for each snack category. RESULTS: Vegetables and coffee/tea received the highest category scores on both indices. Cakes/cookies/pastries and sweets had the lowest category scores. NRF 9.3 scores for individual snacks ranged from -46 (soda) to 524 (coffee). NRF 15.3 scores ranged from -45 (soda) to 736 (coffee). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: If added to food labels, NRF scores could help consumers identify more nutritious choices. The differences between NRF 9.3 and 15.3 scores generated for the same foods and the limitations of these indices highlight the need for careful consideration of which nutrient-density measure to include on food labels as well as consumer education.

Characterizing eating patterns: a comparison of eating occasion definitions.

BACKGROUND: To date, many approaches have been used to define eating occasions (EOs). A standard definition for EOs is required to facilitate further research. OBJECTIVE: In this study, we examined the influence of differing definitions of EOs on the characterization of eating patterns. DESIGN: Cross-sectional dietary data from two 24-h recalls collected during the 2011-12 Australian National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (n = 5242 adults, aged ≥19 y) were analyzed. Eight definitions were applied: participant-identified, time-of-day, and 6 neutral definitions (individual EOs separated by different time intervals and/or an additional energy criterion of 210 kJ). Frequency of and total energy intake from meals, snacks, and all EOs were estimated, as appropriate. Differences were tested by using F tests, stratified by sex and age group. Agreement between different definitions of meal and snack frequencies was assessed by using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). For each definition, linear regression was used to estimate the proportion of variance in total energy intake (kJ) and amount of food intake (g) predicted by frequency of EOs and meals and snacks. RESULTS: Among both sexes and across all age groups, mean frequencies of meals differed between the participant-identified and time-of-day definitions (mean difference range = 0.1-0.3; P < 0.001). There were statistically significant differences between mean frequencies of EOs across the 6 neutral definitions (P < 0.001). There was good agreement for snacks (men: ICC = 0.89; women: ICC = 0.87) but not meal frequencies (men: ICC = 0.38; women: ICC = 0.36) between the participant-identified and time-of-day definitions. The neutral definition (15-min time interval plus energy criterion) best predicted variance in total energy intake (R(2) range = 19.3-27.8). CONCLUSIONS: Different approaches to the definition of EOs affect how eating patterns are characterized, with the neutral definition best predicting variance in total energy intake. Further research that examines how different EO definitions affect associations with health outcomes is needed to develop consensus on a standard EO definition.

State laws governing school meals and disparities in fruit/vegetable intake.

BACKGROUND: Home access to fruits/vegetables (FV) is a consistent predictor of adolescent FV intake, but many adolescents face barriers to home access. PURPOSE: To determine if state laws that require FV in school meals are positively associated with FV intake, particularly among students with limited home access to FV. METHODS: Student data on home food access and FV intake were obtained from the National Youth Physical Activity and Nutrition Study (n=9574) and linked to state laws regarding FV requirements for school meals. All data were collected in 2010. Ordinary least-squares models were utilized in 2012 to estimate differences in intake between states with different FV laws, overall and by whether students had access to various foods at home (FV, unhealthy snacks). Models were weighted to account for the sample design and controlled for race, gender, age, fast-food intake, and school lunches consumed per week. RESULTS: The association between FV requirement laws and FV intake was strongest among students without regular home access to FV. Particularly among students who had home access to only unhealthy snacks and who regularly consumed school meals, mean FV intake was 0.45 and 0.61 cups/day higher, respectively (95% CIs=0.07, 0.84 and 0.21, 1.00), in states with FV requirements. Students with access to healthier foods at home tended to consume more FV, but such disparities in intake were smaller in states with FV laws. CONCLUSIONS: Laws that require FV in school meals may improve FV intake, particularly among students with limited access to healthy foods at home.

Healthy snacks at the checkout counter: a lab and field study on the impact of shelf arrangement and assortment structure on consumer choices.

BACKGROUND: The essence of nudging is to adapt the environment in which consumers make decisions to help them make better choices, without forcing certain outcomes upon them. To determine how consumers can effectively be guided to select healthier snacks, we examine the effect of manipulating the assortment structure and shelf layout of an impulse display including both healthy and unhealthy snacks near the checkout counter of a canteen. METHODS: Both a lab and field study applied a two-factor experimental design manipulating snack offerings both in an on-screen choice environment and a natural environment (hospital staff restaurant). Shelf arrangement (i.e. accessibility) was altered by putting healthy snacks at higher shelves versus lower shelves. Assortment structure (i.e. availability) was altered by offering an assortment that either included 25% or 75% healthy snacks. Participants in the lab study (n = 158) made a choice from a shelf display. A brief survey following snack selection asked participants to evaluate the assortment and their choice. The field experiment took place in a hospital canteen. Daily sales data were collected for a period of four weeks. On completion of the field study, employees (n = 92) filled out a questionnaire about all four displays and rated their attractiveness, healthiness and perceived freedom of choice. RESULTS: The lab study showed a higher probability of healthy snack choice when 75% of the assortment consisted of healthy snacks compared to conditions with 25% healthy snack assortments, even though choices were not rated less satisfying or more restrictive. Regarding shelf display location of healthy snacks, no significant differences were observed. There was also no significant shelf arrangement by assortment structure interactive effect. The field study replicated these findings, in that this assortment structure led to higher sales of healthy snacks. Sales of unhealthy and total snacks were not impacted by manipulations (no main or interaction effects). Employees preferred shelf displays including a larger healthy snack assortment located at top shelves. Employees also felt more freedom in choice when healthy snacks were displayed at top shelves compared to lower shelves. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, results suggest that increasing the prominence of healthy snacks by enlarging their availability, while permitting access to unhealthy snacks, is a promising strategy to promote sales. These results point to the importance of nudging strategies to encourage healthier snack patterns.