Ancient Bacterial Genomes Reveal a High Diversity of Treponema pallidum Strains in Early Modern Europe.

Syphilis is a globally re-emerging disease, which has marked European history with a devastating epidemic at the end of the 15th century. Together with non-venereal treponemal diseases, like bejel and yaws, which are found today in subtropical and tropical regions, it currently poses a substantial health threat worldwide. The origins and spread of treponemal diseases remain unresolved, including syphilis' potential introduction into Europe from the Americas. Here, we present the first genetic data from archaeological human remains reflecting a high diversity of Treponema pallidum in early modern Europe. Our study demonstrates that a variety of strains related to both venereal syphilis and yaws-causing T. pallidum subspecies were already present in Northern Europe in the early modern period. We also discovered a previously unknown T. pallidum lineage recovered as a sister group to yaws- and bejel-causing lineages. These findings imply a more complex pattern of geographical distribution and etiology of early treponemal epidemics than previously understood.

Origin and Health Status of First-Generation Africans from Early Colonial Mexico.

The forced relocation of several thousand Africans during Mexico's historic period has so far been documented mostly through archival sources, which provide only sparse detail on their origins and lived experience. Here, we employ a bioarchaeological approach to explore the life history of three 16th century Africans from a mass burial at the San José de los Naturales Royal Hospital in Mexico City. Our approach draws together ancient genomic data, osteological analysis, strontium isotope data from tooth enamel, δ13C and δ15N isotope data from dentine, and ethnohistorical information to reveal unprecedented detail on their origins and health. Analyses of skeletal features, radiogenic isotopes, and genetic data from uniparental, genome-wide, and human leukocyte antigen (HLA) markers are consistent with a Sub-Saharan African origin for all three individuals. Complete genomes of Treponema pallidum sub. pertenue (causative agent of yaws) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) recovered from these individuals provide insight into their health as related to infectious disease. Phylogenetic analysis of both pathogens reveals their close relationship to strains circulating in current West African populations, lending support to their origins in this region. The further relationship between the treponemal genome retrieved and a treponemal genome previously typed in an individual from Colonial Mexico highlights the role of the transatlantic slave trade in the introduction and dissemination of pathogens into the New World. Putting together all lines of evidence, we were able to create a biological portrait of three individuals whose life stories have long been silenced by disreputable historical events.

Historic Treponema pallidum genomes from Colonial Mexico retrieved from archaeological remains.

Treponema pallidum infections occur worldwide causing, among other diseases, syphilis and yaws. In particular sexually transmitted syphilis is regarded as a re-emerging infectious disease with millions of new infections annually. Here we present three historic T. pallidum genomes (two from T. pallidum ssp. pallidum and one from T. pallidum ssp. pertenue) that have been reconstructed from skeletons recovered from the Convent of Santa Isabel in Mexico City, operational between the 17th and 19th century. Our analyses indicate that different T. pallidum subspecies caused similar diagnostic presentations that are normally associated with syphilis in infants, and potential evidence of a congenital infection of T. pallidum ssp. pertenue, the causative agent of yaws. This first reconstruction of T. pallidum genomes from archaeological material opens the possibility of studying its evolutionary history at a resolution previously assumed to be out of reach.

An imperial laboratory: the investigation and treatment of treponematoses in occupied Haiti, 1915-1934 / Um laboratório imperial: investigação e tratamento da treponematose no Haiti ocupado, 1915-1934

This article examines anti-treponematoses work as part of US occupation public health policy in Haiti, a unique event in the history of international health. Yaws was highly prevalent in Haiti, but occupation doctors initially ignored it because of its close association with syphilis and stigmas attached to sexually transmitted disease. This changed when C.S. Butler asserted that yaws was "innocent" and that the two diseases should therefore be considered as one. Treatment increased as an anti-treponematoses campaign was now believed to hold great benefits for the occupation's paternalist and strategic aims, even though it ultimately failed. This work reflected Haiti's status as a public health "laboratory" which affected Haitian medicine for years to come and significantly influenced future campaigns aimed at disease eradication.

Este artigo investiga o trabalho anti-treponêmico como parte da política norte-americana de saúde pública na ocupação do Haiti, evento inédito na história da saúde internacional. Era alta a incidência da bouba no Haiti, mas médicos da ocupação a ignoravam por ser parecida com a sífilis e pelos estigmas da doença sexualmente transmitida. A situação mudou quando C.S. Butler afirmou que a bouba era "inocente" e que as duas doenças deveriam ser consideradas uma. Surgiram mais tratamentos com uma campanha anti-treponêmica que trazia benefícios aos objetivos paternalistas e estratégicos da ocupação, apesar do seu fracasso final. Esse trabalho ilustra o Haiti como "laboratório" de saúde pública, o que afetou a medicina haitiana por anos e influenciou campanhas futuras para erradicar a doença.

An imperial laboratory: the investigation and treatment of treponematoses in occupied Haiti, 1915-1934.

This article examines anti-treponematoses work as part of US occupation public health policy in Haiti, a unique event in the history of international health. Yaws was highly prevalent in Haiti, but occupation doctors initially ignored it because of its close association with syphilis and stigmas attached to sexually transmitted disease. This changed when C.S. Butler asserted that yaws was "innocent" and that the two diseases should therefore be considered as one. Treatment increased as an anti-treponematoses campaign was now believed to hold great benefits for the occupation's paternalist and strategic aims, even though it ultimately failed. This work reflected Haiti's status as a public health "laboratory" which affected Haitian medicine for years to come and significantly influenced future campaigns aimed at disease eradication.

Tools for opening new chapters in the book of Treponema pallidum evolutionary history.

Treponema pallidum infections causing yaws disease and venereal syphilis are globally widespread in human populations, infecting hundreds of thousands and millions annually respectively; endemic syphilis is much less common, and pinta has not been observed in decades. We discuss controversy surrounding the origin, evolution and history of these pathogens in light of available molecular and anthropological evidence. These bacteria (or close relatives) seem to affect many wild African nonhuman primate (NHP) species, though to date only a single NHP Treponema pallidum genome has been published, hindering detection of spillover events and our understanding of potential wildlife reservoirs. Similarly, only ten genomes of Treponema pallidum infecting humans have been published, impeding a full understanding of their diversity and evolutionary history. Research efforts have been hampered by the difficulty of culturing and propagating Treponema pallidum. Here we highlight avenues of research recently opened by the coupling of hybridization capture and next-generation sequencing. We present data generated with such an approach suggesting that asymptomatic bones from NHP occasionally contain enough treponemal DNA to recover large fractions of their genomes. We expect that these methods, which naturally can be applied to modern biopsy samples and ancient human bones, will soon considerably improve our understanding of these enigmatic pathogens and lay rest to old yet unresolved controversies.

Yaws: 110 years after Castellani's discovery of Treponema pallidum subspecies pertenue.

Yaws is a neglected infectious disease that affects mostly children and adolescents living in poor, rural communities in humid, tropical areas of Africa, southeast Asia, and the Pacific Islands. The etiological agent of yaws, Treponema pallidum subspecies pertenue (T. pertenue), was discovered by Aldo Castellani in 1905 shortly after Schaudinn and Hoffmann discovered the etiological agent of syphilis, T. pallidum subspecies pallidum. The discovery of T. pertenue enabled the development of animal models and the identification of an effective antibiotic treatment (i.e., penicillin) for yaws. A World Health Organization (WHO) mass treatment campaign from 1952 to 1964 reduced the global burden of yaws by 95%, but failed to eradicate this disease. Today, 110 years after Castellani's discovery of T. pertenue, yaws is again targeted for eradication. Recent advances in the treatment and diagnosis of yaws improve the likelihood of success this time. However, several challenges must be overcome to make the goal of yaws eradication attainable.

Eradication of yaws: historical efforts and achieving WHO's 2020 target.

BACKGROUND: Yaws, one of the 17 neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), is targeted for eradication by 2020 in resolution WHA66.12 of the World Health Assembly (2013) and the WHO roadmap on NTDs (2012). The disease frequently affects children who live in poor socioeconomic conditions. Between 1952 and 1964, WHO and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) led a global eradication campaign using injectable benzathine penicillin. Recent developments using a single dose of oral azithromycin have renewed optimism that eradication can be achieved through a comprehensive large-scale treatment strategy. We review historical efforts to eradicate yaws and argue that this goal is now technically feasible using new tools and with the favorable environment for control of NTDs. We also summarize the work of WHO's Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases in leading the renewed eradication initiative and call on the international community to support efforts to achieve the 2020 eradication goal. The critical factor remains access to azithromycin. Excluding medicines, the financial cost of yaws eradication could be as little as US$ 100 million. CONCLUSIONS: The development of new tools has renewed interest in eradication of yaws; with modest support, the WHO eradication target of 2020 can be achieved.

Yaws, syphilis, sexuality, and the circulation of medical knowledge in the British Caribbean and the Atlantic world.

This history of the disease categories "yaws" and "syphilis" explores the interplay between European and African medical cultures in the early modern Atlantic world. The assertion made by both early modern and modern medical authorities, that yaws and syphilis are the same disease, prompts a case study of the history of disease that reflects on a variety of issues in the history of medicine: the use of ideas about contagion to demarcate racial and sexual difference at sites around the British Empire; the contrast between persistently holistic ideas about disease causation in the Black Atlantic and the growth of ontological theories of disease among Europeans and Euro-Americans; and the controversy over the African practice of yaws inoculation, which may once have been an effective treatment but was stamped out by plantation owners who viewed it as a waste of their enslaved laborers' valuable time.

Basta aplicar uma injeção?: desafios e contradições da saúde pública nos tempos de JK (1956-1961) / Just an injection?: challenges and contradictions of public health in times of JK (1956-1961)

O ano era 1956. Parcelas expressivas das populações pobres do interior padeciam de uma doença infecciosa que atingia pele, ossos e cartilagens, provocando deformidades. Era a bouba, causada por uma bactéria e hoje pouco conhecida mesmo entre médicos e profissionais de saúde. Naquela época, porém, representava um dos entraves à integração do sertão com o litoral e ao avanço do país. Defendia-se, pois, a importância das novas tecnologias médicas para curar aqueles doentes e torná-los trabalhadores aptos à agricultura modernizada. Eram os tempos do nacional-desenvolvimentismo. Esta história, que revela os meandros da saúde pública brasileira na década de 1950, em especial durante o governo de Juscelino Kubitscheck, está esmiuçada neste livro, fruto da premiada dissertação de mestrado do autor. Ele problematiza conceitos como os de controle e erradicação de doenças, e demonstra os limites de uma nova tecnologia biomédica diante da persistência dos determinantes sociais de uma enfermidade, como a pobreza e a fome. (AU)

De mal duradouro a doença curável: a história da pesquisa sobre a Bouba no Brasil / From lasting evil to curable disease: the history of research on Bouba in Brazil

O autor aborda aspectos da história da bouba e de sua pesquisa no Brasil. Apresenta o controvertido debate sobre as origens da doença presentes em teses médicas do século XIX, atentando às mudanças de terapêuticas ministradas para a bouba, o que produziu diferentes enquadramentos ao longo do século XX até o advento de novos medicamentos e a definição da penincilina como método para execução da campanha de erradicação na década de 1950. A tradição das pesquisas sobre a bouba do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC) e a trajetória do médico Felipe Nery Guimarães, responsável pelos primeiros testes com penincilina aplicada à bouba no Brasil, serão fundamentais para a compreensão do caminho traçado até a criação da campanha. (AU)

Basta aplicar uma injeção? desafios e contradições da saúde pública nos tempos de JK (1956-1961) / Just an injection? challenges and contradictions of public health in times of JK (1956-1961)

O ano era 1956. Parcelas expressivas das populações pobres do interior padeciam de uma doença infecciosa que atingia pele, ossos e cartilagens, provocando deformidades. Era a bouba, causada por uma bactéria e hoje pouco conhecida mesmo entre médicos e profissionais de saúde. Naquela época, porém, representava um dos entraves à integração do sertão com o litoral e ao avanço do país. Defendia-se, pois, a importância das novas tecnologias médicas para curar aqueles doentes e torná-los trabalhadores aptos à agricultura modernizada. Eram os tempos do nacional-desenvolvimentismo. Esta história, que revela os meandros da saúde pública brasileira na década de 1950, em especial durante o governo de Juscelino Kubitscheck, está esmiuçada neste livro, fruto da premiada dissertação de mestrado do autor. Ele problematiza conceitos como os de controle e erradicação de doenças, e demonstra os limites de uma nova tecnologia biomédica diante da persistência dos determinantes sociais de uma enfermidade, como a pobreza e a fome.

Basta aplicar uma injeção. Desafios e contradições da saúde pública nos tempos de JK (1956-1961) / Simply apply a shot. Challenges and contradictions of public health in the time of JK (1956-1961)

O ano era 1956. Parcelas expressivas das populações pobres do interior padeciam de uma doença infecciosa que atingia pele, ossos e cartilagens, provocando deformidades. Era a bouba, causada por uma bactéria e hoje pouco conhecida mesmo entre médicos e profissionais de saúde. Naquela época, porém, representava um dos entraves à integração do sertão com o litoral e ao avanço do país. Defendia-se, pois, a importância das novas tecnologias médicas para curar aqueles doentes e torná-los trabalhadores aptos à agricultura modernizada. Eram os tempos do nacional-desenvolvimentismo. Esta história – que revela os meandros da saúde pública brasileira na década de 1950, em especial durante o governo de Juscelino Kubitscheck – está esmiuçada neste livro, fruto da premiada dissertação de mestrado do autor. Ele problematiza conceitos como os de controle e erradicação de doenças, e demonstra os limites de uma nova tecnologia biomédica diante da persistência dos determinantes sociais de uma enfermidade – como a pobreza e a fome

'Basta aplicar uma injeção?': concepções de saúde, higiene e nutrição no Programa de Erradicação da Bouba no Brasil, 1956-1961 / "Is a shot alone enough?": concepts of health, hygiene, and nutrition and the Program to Eradicate Yaws in Brazil, 1956-1961

Analisa o Programa de Erradicação da Bouba, desenvolvido no Brasil entre 1956 e 1961. Após a Segunda Guerra Mundial, durante a qual iniciou-se o uso de antibióticos, um novo método parecia possibilitar a erradicação de treponematoses em curto prazo: a aplicação de injeções de penicilina em dose única. Sob o clima de valorização do controle das endemias rurais no país, a organização de uma campanha contra a bouba tornou-se possível. Os trabalhos, realizados pelo Departamento Nacional de Endemias Rurais, encontraram uma população desnutrida e faminta, o que colocou em dúvida as pretensões da campanha e as concepções de saúde e desenvolvimento da época.

The article analyzes the Program to Eradicate Yaws, enforced in Brazil from 1956 through 1961. Following World War II, when antibiotics first came into use, it seemed there might be a method for eradicating treponematosis in a short time: a single-dose injection of penicillin. At a moment when priority was being placed on fighting rural endemic disease in Brazil, it became possible to organize a campaign against yaws. The article explores the initiatives undertaken by the National Department of Rural Endemic Diseases that revealed a malnourished, starving population, and called into question the very intentions behind the campaign and the day's concepts of health and development.

‘Basta aplicar uma injeção?’: concepções de saúde, higiene e nutriçãono Programa de Erradicação da Bouba no Brasil, 1956-1961 / “Is a shot alone enough?”: concepts of health, hygiene, and nutrition and the Program to Eradicate Yaws in Brazil, 1956-1961

Analisa o Programa de Erradicação da Bouba, desenvolvido no Brasil entre 1956 e 1961. Após a Segunda Guerra Mundial, durante a qual iniciou-se o uso de antibióticos, um novo método parecia possibilitar a erradicação de treponematoses em curto prazo: a aplicação de injeções de penicilina em dose única. Sob o clima de valorização do controle das endemias rurais no país, a organização de uma campanha contra a bouba tornou-se possível. Os trabalhos, realizados pelo Departamento Nacional de Endemias Rurais, encontraram uma população desnutrida e faminta, o que colocou em dúvida as pretensões da campanha e as concepções de saúde e desenvolvimento da época. (AU)

[Medical policies, state and religious missions in Rwanda (1920-1940). An authoritative design of colonial medicine?]. / Politiques sanitaires, Etat et missions religieuses au Rwanda (1920-1940). Une conception autoritaire de la médecine coloniale?

The Belgian health policy set up in mandated Rwanda after the First World War was mainly centred on some campaigns taking specifically yaws as a target. The struggle against this endemic disease (not fatal, but most disabling) was organized in a very systematic and authoritarian way. This article looks into two of those yaws campaigns, questions their runnings and alterations, and finally brings to light the intra-colonial tensions between the health services and the administration on the one hand, between the colonizers and the African populations on the other hand.