Campylobacter jejuni virulence factors: update on emerging issues and trends.

Campylobacter jejuni is a very common cause of gastroenteritis, and is frequently transmitted to humans through contaminated food products or water. Importantly, C. jejuni infections have a range of short- and long-term sequelae such as irritable bowel syndrome and Guillain Barre syndrome. C. jejuni triggers disease by employing a range of molecular strategies which enable it to colonise the gut, invade the epithelium, persist intracellularly and avoid detection by the host immune response. The objective of this review is to explore and summarise recent advances in the understanding of the C. jejuni molecular factors involved in colonisation, invasion of cells, collective quorum sensing-mediated behaviours and persistence. Understanding the mechanisms that underpin the pathogenicity of C. jejuni will enable future development of effective preventative approaches and vaccines against this pathogen.

Small RNAs that target G-rich sequences are generated by diverse biogenesis pathways in Epsilonproteobacteria.

Bacterial small RNAs (sRNAs) are widespread post-transcriptional regulators that control bacterial stress responses and virulence. Nevertheless, little is known about how they arise and evolve. Homologs can be difficult to identify beyond the strain level using sequence-based approaches, and similar functionalities can arise by convergent evolution. Here, we found that the virulence-associated CJnc190 sRNA of the foodborne pathogen Campylobacter jejuni resembles the RepG sRNA from the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori. However, while both sRNAs bind G-rich sites in their target mRNAs using a C/U-rich loop, they largely differ in their biogenesis. RepG is transcribed from a stand-alone gene and does not require processing, whereas CJnc190 is transcribed from two promoters as precursors that are processed by RNase III and also has a cis-encoded antagonist, CJnc180. By comparing CJnc190 homologs in diverse Campylobacter species, we show that RNase III-dependent processing of CJnc190 appears to be a conserved feature even outside of C. jejuni. We also demonstrate the CJnc180 antisense partner is expressed in C. coli, yet here might be derived from the 3'UTR (untranslated region) of an upstream flagella-related gene. Our analysis of G-tract targeting sRNAs in Epsilonproteobacteria demonstrates that similar sRNAs can have markedly different biogenesis pathways.

Interplay between DsbA1, DsbA2 and C8J_1298 Periplasmic Oxidoreductases of Campylobacter jejuni and Their Impact on Bacterial Physiology and Pathogenesis.

The bacterial proteins of the Dsb family catalyze the formation of disulfide bridges between cysteine residues that stabilize protein structures and ensure their proper functioning. Here, we report the detailed analysis of the Dsb pathway of Campylobacter jejuni. The oxidizing Dsb system of this pathogen is unique because it consists of two monomeric DsbAs (DsbA1 and DsbA2) and one dimeric bifunctional protein (C8J_1298). Previously, we showed that DsbA1 and C8J_1298 are redundant. Here, we unraveled the interaction between the two monomeric DsbAs by in vitro and in vivo experiments and by solving their structures and found that both monomeric DsbAs are dispensable proteins. Their structures confirmed that they are homologs of EcDsbL. The slight differences seen in the surface charge of the proteins do not affect the interaction with their redox partner. Comparative proteomics showed that several respiratory proteins, as well as periplasmic transport proteins, are targets of the Dsb system. Some of these, both donors and electron acceptors, are essential elements of the C. jejuni respiratory process under oxygen-limiting conditions in the host intestine. The data presented provide detailed information on the function of the C. jejuni Dsb system, identifying it as a potential target for novel antibacterial molecules.

Ruminant-Related Risk Factors are Associated with Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Infection in Children in Southern Ghana.

Livestock can provide benefits to low-income households, yet may expose children to zoonotic enteropathogens that cause illness and negative long-term health outcomes. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to determine whether livestock-related risk factors, including animal ownership, exposure to animal feces, and consumption of animal-source foods, were associated with bacterial zoonotic enteropathogen infections in children 6-59 months old in Greater Accra, Ghana. Stool samples from 259 children and 156 household chickens were analyzed for atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (aEPEC), Campylobacter jejuni/coli (C. jejuni/coli), Salmonella, and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). aEPEC, C. jejuni/coli, STEC, and Salmonella were detected in 45.6%, 11.6%, 4.3%, and 0.8% of children's stool samples, respectively. In adjusted logistic regression models, household ownership of goats or sheep was associated with STEC detection in children (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]: 4.30 [1.32, 14.08]), as were positive detection of STEC in chicken feces (7.85 [2.54, 24.30]) and frequent consumption of fresh cow's milk (3.03 [1.75, 5.24]). No livestock-related risk factors were associated with aEPEC or C. jejuni/coli infection in children. Our findings suggest that ruminant ownership in southern Ghana may expose children to STEC through household fecal contamination and foodborne routes. The lack of association between livestock risk factors and the more commonly detected pathogens, aEPEC and C. jejuni/coli, warrants further research, particularly to help explain how animal-keeping and sanitation practices affect transmission of fecal pathogens that were highly prevalent in chicken feces.

The Distribution of Campylobacter jejuni Virulence Genes in Genomes Worldwide Derived from the NCBI Pathogen Detection Database.

Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) is responsible for 80% of human campylobacteriosis and is the leading cause of gastroenteritis globally. The relevant public health risks of C. jejuni are caused by particular virulence genes encompassing its virulome. We analyzed 40,371 publicly available genomes of C. jejuni deposited in the NCBI Pathogen Detection Database, combining their epidemiologic metadata with an in silico bioinformatics analysis to increase our current comprehension of their virulome from a global perspective. The collection presented a virulome composed of 126 identified virulence factors that were grouped in three clusters representing the accessory, the softcore, and the essential core genes according to their prevalence within the genomes. The multilocus sequence type distribution in the genomes was also investigated. An unexpected low prevalence of the full-length flagellin flaA and flaB locus of C. jejuni genomes was revealed, and an essential core virulence gene repertoire prevalent in more than 99.99% of genomes was identified. Altogether, this is a pioneer study regarding Campylobacter jejuni that has compiled a significant amount of data about the Multilocus Sequence Type and virulence factors concerning their global prevalence and distribution over this database.

Pharmacokinetics of tulathromycin in pregnant ewes (Ovis aries) challenged with Campylobacter jejuni.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of tulathromycin in the plasma and maternal and fetal tissues of pregnant ewes when administered within 24 hours of a single, IV Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) challenge. Twelve, pregnant ewes between 72-92 days of gestation were challenged IV with C. jejuni IA3902 and then treated with 1.1 ml/45.36 kg of tulathromycin subcutaneously 18 hours post-challenge. Ewes were bled at predetermined time points and euthanized either at a predetermined time point or following the observation of vaginal bleeding or abortion. Following euthanasia, tissues were collected for bacterial culture, pharmacokinetics and histologic examination. The maximum (geometric) mean tulathromycin plasma concentration was estimated at 0.302 µg/mL, with a peak level observed at around 1.2 hours. The apparent systemic clearance of tulathromycin was estimated at 16.6 L/h (or 0.28 L/kg/h) with an elimination half-life estimated at approximately 22 hours. The mean tissue concentrations were highest in the uterus (2.464 µg/g) and placentome (0.484 µg/g), and were lowest in fetal liver (0.11 µg/g) and fetal lung (0.03 µg/g). Compared to previous reports, results of this study demonstrate that prior IV administration of C. jejuni appeared to substantially alter the pharmacokinetics of tulathromycin, reducing both the peak plasma concentrations and elimination half-life. However, additional controlled trials are required to confirm those observations.

Campylobacter jejuni genotypes are associated with post-infection irritable bowel syndrome in humans.

Campylobacter enterocolitis may lead to post-infection irritable bowel syndrome (PI-IBS) and while some C. jejuni strains are more likely than others to cause human disease, genomic and virulence characteristics promoting PI-IBS development remain uncharacterized. We combined pangenome-wide association studies and phenotypic assays to compare C. jejuni isolates from patients who developed PI-IBS with those who did not. We show that variation in bacterial stress response (Cj0145_phoX), adhesion protein (Cj0628_CapA), and core biosynthetic pathway genes (biotin: Cj0308_bioD; purine: Cj0514_purQ; isoprenoid: Cj0894c_ispH) were associated with PI-IBS development. In vitro assays demonstrated greater adhesion, invasion, IL-8 and TNFα secretion on colonocytes with PI-IBS compared to PI-no-IBS strains. A risk-score for PI-IBS development was generated using 22 genomic markers, four of which were from Cj1631c, a putative heme oxidase gene linked to virulence. Our finding that specific Campylobacter genotypes confer greater in vitro virulence and increased risk of PI-IBS has potential to improve understanding of the complex host-pathogen interactions underlying this condition.

Genomic analysis of extra-intestinal Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolated from commercial chickens.

Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli have commonly been considered harmless commensal inhabitants of the chicken gut; however, these Campylobacter spp. are known to be able to multiply in the gut and invade other tissues, negatively affecting host health and performance. In this study, fourteen Campylobacter spp. were isolated from chickens showing foci of necrosis on the liver surface resembling lesions observed in cases of avian vibrionic hepatitis/spotty liver disease. The whole genome sequences of the fourteen isolates were analysed and their virulomes compared to those of Campylobacter reference sequences, aiming to investigate the possible association between virulence genes and the observed pathological lesions. Nine C. jejuni and five C. coli were studied. These Campylobacter shared twelve virulence factors with other isolates originated from chicken livers and hosted a higher number of virulence-associated genes in comparison to the reference genomes, including genes encoding for factors involved in adherence to and invasion of the intestinal epithelial cells. Our findings seem to point out that these twelve common virulence-associated genes, together with the presence of a high number of virulence factors involved in adherence, invasion and motility, might be responsible for the extra-intestinal spread of our isolates and the colonization of parenchymatous tissues, possibly causing the pathological lesions observed.

Staphylococcus aureus enhances biofilm formation, aerotolerance, and survival of Campylobacter strains isolated from retail meats.

In retail meat products, Campylobacter jejuni, C. coli, and Staphylococcus aureus have been reported in high prevalence. The polymicrobial interaction between Campylobacter and other bacteria could enhance Campylobacter survival during the adverse conditions encountered during retail meat processing and storage. This study was designed to investigate the potential role of S. aureus from retail meats in enhancing the survival of Campylobacter exposed to low temperature, aerobic conditions, and biofilm formation. Results indicated that viable S. aureus cells and filter-sterilized cell-free media obtained from S. aureus prolonged the survival of Campylobacter at low temperature and during aerobic conditions. Biofilm formation of Campylobacter strains was significantly enhanced in the presence of viable S. aureus cells, but the results were inconclusive when extracts from cell-free media were used. In conclusion, the presence of S. aureus cells enhances survivability of Campylobacter strains in adverse conditions such as low temperature and aerobic conditions. Further investigations are warranted to understand the interaction between Campylobacter and S. aureus, and effective intervention strategies are needed to reduce the incidence of both foodborne pathogens in retail meat products.

Genome-wide insights into population structure and host specificity of Campylobacter jejuni.

The zoonotic pathogen Campylobacter jejuni is among the leading causes of foodborne diseases worldwide. While C. jejuni colonises many wild animals and livestock, persistence mechanisms enabling the bacterium to adapt to host species' guts are not fully understood. In order to identify putative determinants influencing host preferences of distinct lineages, bootstrapping based on stratified random sampling combined with a k-mer-based genome-wide association was conducted on 490 genomes from diverse origins in Germany and Canada. We show a strong association of both the core and the accessory genome characteristics with distinct host animal species, indicating multiple adaptive trajectories defining the evolution of C. jejuni lifestyle preferences in different ecosystems. Here, we demonstrate that adaptation towards a specific host niche ecology is most likely a long evolutionary and multifactorial process, expressed by gene absence or presence and allele variations of core genes. Several host-specific allelic variants from different phylogenetic backgrounds, including dnaE, rpoB, ftsX or pycB play important roles for genome maintenance and metabolic pathways. Thus, variants of genes important for C. jejuni to cope with specific ecological niches or hosts may be useful markers for both surveillance and future pathogen intervention strategies.

Biosynthesis of d-glycero-l-gluco-Heptose in the Capsular Polysaccharides of Campylobacter jejuni.

Campylobacter jejuni is the leading cause of food poisoning in the United States and Europe. The exterior cell surface of C. jejuni is coated with a capsular polysaccharide (CPS) that is essential for the maintenance and integrity of the bacterial cell wall and evasion of the host immune response. The identity and sequences of the monosaccharide components of the CPS are quite variable and dependent on the specific strain of C. jejuni. It is currently thought that the immediate precursor for the multiple variations found in the heptose moieties of the C. jejuni CPS is GDP-d-glycero-α-d-manno-heptose. In C. jejuni NCTC 11168, the heptose moiety is d-glycero-l-gluco-heptose. It has previously been shown that Cj1427 catalyzes the oxidation of GDP-d-glycero-α-d-manno-heptose to GDP-d-glycero-4-keto-α-d-lyxo-heptose using α-ketoglutarate as a cosubstrate. Cj1430 was now demonstrated to catalyze the double epimerization of this product at C3 and C5 to form GDP-d-glycero-4-keto-ß-l-xylo-heptose. Cj1428 subsequently catalyzes the stereospecific reduction of this GDP-linked heptose by NADPH to form GDP-d-glycero-ß-l-gluco-heptose. The three-dimensional crystal structure of Cj1430 was determined to a resolution of 1.85 Å in the presence of bound GDP-d-glycero-ß-l-gluco-heptose, a product analogue. The structure shows that it belongs to the cupin superfamily. The three-dimensional crystal structure of Cj1428 was solved in the presence of NADPH to a resolution of 1.50 Å. Its fold places it into the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase superfamily. Typically, members in this family display a characteristic signature sequence of YXXXK, with the conserved tyrosine serving a key role in catalysis. In Cj1428, this residue is a phenylalanine.

Genetic characterisation of a subset of Campylobacter jejuni isolates from clinical and poultry sources in Ireland.

Campylobacter spp. is a significant and prevalent public health hazard globally. Campylobacter jejuni is the most frequently recovered species from human cases and poultry are considered the most important reservoir for its transmission to humans. In this study, 30 Campylobacter jejuni isolates were selected from clinical (n = 15) and broiler (n = 15) sources from a larger cohort, based on source, virulence, and antimicrobial resistance profiles. The objective of this study was to further characterise the genomes of these isolates including MLST types, population structure, pan-genome, as well as virulence and antimicrobial resistance determinants. A total of 18 sequence types and 12 clonal complexes were identified. The most common clonal complex was ST-45, which was found in both clinical and broiler samples. We characterised the biological functions that were associated with the core and accessory genomes of the isolates in this study. No significant difference in the prevalence of virulence or antimicrobial resistance determinants was observed between clinical and broiler isolates, although genes associated with severe illness such as neuABC, wlaN and cstIII were only detected in clinical isolates. The ubiquity of virulence factors associated with motility, invasion and cytolethal distending toxin (CDT) synthesis in both clinical and broiler C. jejuni genomes and genetic similarities between groups of broiler and clinical C. jejuni reaffirm that C. jejuni from poultry remains a significant threat to public health.

Prevalence, Characterization, and Control of Campylobacter jejuni Isolated from Raw Milk, Cheese, and Human Stool Samples in Beni-Suef Governorate, Egypt.

Our study aimed to determine the prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from raw milk, cheese, and human stool samples in Beni-Suef Governorate, Egypt, and to characterize the antibiotic resistance profile and virulence genes of the isolates. An additional objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of cinnamon oil and Lactobacillus acidophilus La5 for controlling C. jejuni in cheese. A total of 200 samples of raw milk and dairy products, including 50 samples of raw milk and 150 samples of three different types of cheese were used. Fifty-three human stool samples were also collected. The samples were tested for the presence of C. jejuni using culture and molecular methods. Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 9.5% (19/200) of the raw milk and cheese samples. The highest prevalence was observed in milk samples (18%), followed by Kareish cheese (14%) and Talaga cheese (6%). In contrast, C. jejuni was not found in any of the Feta cheese samples. Of the human stool samples, 21 (39.6%) were positive for C. jejuni. Of the isolates, 60-90% were highly resistant to the antimicrobial agents tested, that is, nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, and tetracycline. Virulent cadF and cdtA genes were detected in all isolates. As milk and dairy products are important sources of contamination, reducing the level of C. jejuni in them will lower the risk to consumers. We showed that L. acidophilus La5 was able to control C. jejuni in Kareish cheese, but cinnamon oil was less effective.

The Campylobacter jejuni CiaD effector co-opts the host cell protein IQGAP1 to promote cell entry.

Campylobacter jejuni is a foodborne pathogen that binds to and invades the epithelial cells lining the human intestinal tract. Maximal invasion of host cells by C. jejuni requires cell binding as well as delivery of the Cia proteins (Campylobacter invasion antigens) to the host cell cytosol via the flagellum. Here, we show that CiaD binds to the host cell protein IQGAP1 (a Ras GTPase-activating-like protein), thus displacing RacGAP1 from the IQGAP1 complex. This, in turn, leads to the unconstrained activity of the small GTPase Rac1, which is known to have roles in actin reorganization and internalization of C. jejuni. Our results represent the identification of a host cell protein targeted by a flagellar secreted effector protein and demonstrate that C. jejuni-stimulated Rac signaling is dependent on IQGAP1.

The Campylobacter jejuni chemoreceptor Tlp10 has a bimodal ligand-binding domain and specificity for multiple classes of chemoeffectors.

Campylobacter jejuni is a bacterial pathogen that is a common cause of enteritis in humans. We identified a previously uncharacterized type of sensory domain in the periplasmic region of the C. jejuni chemoreceptor Tlp10, termed the DAHL domain, that is predicted to have a bimodular helical architecture. Through two independent ligand-binding sites in this domain, Tlp10 responded to molecular aspartate, isoleucine, fumarate, malate, fucose, and mannose as attractants and to arginine, galactose, and thiamine as repellents. Tlp10 also recognized glycan ligands when present as terminal and intermediate residues of complex structures, such as the fucosylated human ganglioside GM1 and Lewisa antigen. A tlp10 mutant strain lacking the ligand-binding sites was attenuated in its ability to colonize avian caeca and to adhere to cultured human intestinal cells, indicating the potential involvement of the DAHL domain in host colonization and disease. The Tlp10 intracellular signaling domain interacted with the scaffolding proteins CheV and CheW, which couple chemoreceptors to intracellular signaling machinery, and with the signaling domains of other chemoreceptors, suggesting a key role for Tlp10 in signal transduction and incorporation into sensory arrays. We identified the DAHL domain in other bacterial signal transduction proteins, including the essential virulence induction protein VirA from the plant pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens Together, these results suggest a potential link between Tlp10 and C. jejuni virulence.

Microbiota attenuates chicken transmission-exacerbated campylobacteriosis in Il10-/- mice.

Campylobacter jejuni is a prevalent foodborne pathogen mainly transmitting through poultry. It remains unknown how chicken-transmitted C. jejuni and microbiota impact on human campylobacteriosis. Campylobacter jejuni AR101 (Cj-P0) was introduced to chickens and isolated as passage 1 (Cj-P1). Campylobacter jejuni Cj-P1-DCA-Anaero was isolated from Cj-P0-infected birds transplanted with DCA-modulated anaerobic microbiota. Specific pathogen free Il10-/- mice were gavaged with antibiotic clindamycin and then infected with Cj-P0, Cj-P1, or Cj-P1-DCA-Anaero, respectively. After 8 days post infection, Il10-/- mice infected with Cj-P1 demonstrated severe morbidity and bloody diarrhea and the experiment had to be terminated. Cj-P1 induced more severe histopathology compared to Cj-P0, suggesting that chicken transmission increased C. jejuni virulence. Importantly, mice infected with Cj-P1-DCA-Anaero showed attenuation of intestinal inflammation compared to Cj-P1. At the cellular level, Cj-P1 induced more C. jejuni invasion and neutrophil infiltration into the Il10-/- mouse colon tissue compared to Cj-P0, which was attenuated with Cj-P1-DCA-Anaero. At the molecular level, Cj-P1 induced elevated inflammatory mediator mRNA accumulation of Il17a, Il1ß, and Cxcl1 in the colon compared to Cj-P0, while Cj-P1-DCA-Anaero showed reduction of the inflammatory gene expression. In conclusion, our data suggest that DCA-modulated anaerobes attenuate chicken-transmitted campylobacteriosis in mice and it is important to control the elevation of C. jejuni virulence during chicken transmission process.

A porcine ligated loop model reveals new insight into the host immune response against Campylobacter jejuni.

The symptoms of infectious diarrheal disease are mediated by a combination of a pathogen's virulence factors and the host immune system. Campylobacter jejuni is the leading bacterial cause of diarrhea worldwide due to its near-ubiquitous zoonotic association with poultry. One of the outstanding questions is to what extent the bacteria are responsible for the diarrheal symptoms via intestinal cell necrosis versus immune cell initiated tissue damage. To determine the stepwise process of inflammation that leads to diarrhea, we used a piglet ligated intestinal loop model to study the intestinal response to C. jejuni. Pigs were chosen due to the anatomical similarity between the porcine and the human intestine. We found that the abundance of neutrophil related proteins increased in the intestinal lumen during C. jejuni infection, including proteins related to neutrophil migration (neutrophil elastase and MMP9), actin reorganization (Arp2/3), and antimicrobial proteins (lipocalin-2, myeloperoxidase, S100A8, and S100A9). The appearance of neutrophil proteins also corresponded with increases of the inflammatory cytokines IL-8 and TNF-α. Compared to infection with the C. jejuni wild-type strain, infection with the noninvasive C. jejuni ∆ciaD mutant resulted in a blunted inflammatory response, with less inflammatory cytokines and neutrophil markers. These findings indicate that intestinal inflammation is driven by C. jejuni virulence and that neutrophils are the predominant cell type responding to C. jejuni infection. We propose that this model can be used as a platform to study the early immune events during infection with intestinal pathogens.

Investigation of antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes of Campylobacter isolates from patients in a tertiary hospital in Edirne, Turkey.

Purpose: Campylobacter is one of the most common pathogens that cause food-borne infections worldwide. The aim of this study was to determine the antimicrobial resistance rates and the presence of multiple virulence genes in Campylobacter isolates obtained from humans. Materials and Methods: In this study, 71 Campylobacter isolates obtained from human faecal samples were used. Antimicrobial susceptibility tests were performed through the gradient strip method. The presence of virulence genes was investigated by monoplex and multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Results: The rate of resistance of the 66 Campylobacter jejuni isolates was 12.1% for erythromycin, 40.9% for tetracycline and 68.2% for ciprofloxacin. Only one of five Campylobacter coli isolates was resistant to these three antimicrobial agents. The flaB, pldA, cdtA, cadF, cdtC and ceuE genes were found in all 66 of the C. jejuni isolates. In the C. jejuni isolates, positivity rates of 92.4% for flaA, 96.7% for cdtB, 98.5% for ciaB, 90.9% for dnaJ and 96.7% for racR were observed. The flaA, flaB, ciaB, cdtA and cdtC genes were present in all C. coli isolates. Conclusions: It was detected that there is an increase in antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter strains in our region, and most of the isolates harbour virulence genes.

Bacteroides fragilis fucosidases facilitate growth and invasion of Campylobacter jejuni in the presence of mucins.

The enteropathogenic bacterium, Campylobacter jejuni, was considered to be non-saccharolytic, but recently it emerged that l-fucose plays a central role in C. jejuni virulence. Half of C. jejuni clinical isolates possess an operon for l-fucose utilisation. In the intestinal tract, l-fucose is abundantly available in mucin O-linked glycan structures, but C. jejuni lacks a fucosidase enzyme essential to release the l-fucose. We set out to determine how C. jejuni can gain access to these intestinal l-fucosides. Growth of the fuc + C. jejuni strains, 129,108 and NCTC 11168, increased in the presence of l-fucose while fucose permease knockout strains did not benefit from additional l-fucose. With fucosidase assays and an activity-based probe, we confirmed that Bacteriodes fragilis, an abundant member of the intestinal microbiota, secretes active fucosidases. In the presence of mucins, C. jejuni was dependent on B. fragilis fucosidase activity for increased growth. Campylobacter jejuni invaded Caco-2 intestinal cells that express complex O-linked glycan structures that contain l-fucose. In infection experiments, C. jejuni was more invasive in the presence of B. fragilis and this increase is due to fucosidase activity. We conclude that C. jejuni fuc + strains are dependent on exogenous fucosidases for increased growth and invasion.

Metagenomic Profiling of Ocular Surface Microbiome Changes in Meibomian Gland Dysfunction.

Purpose: Ocular surface microbiome changes can affect meibomian gland dysfunction (MGD) development. This study aimed to delineate differences among the microbiome of eyelid skin, conjunctiva, and meibum in healthy controls (HCs) and patients afflicted with MGD. Methods: Shotgun metagenomic analysis was used to determine if there are differences between the microbial communities in ocular sites surrounding the meibomian gland in healthy individuals and patients afflicted with MGD. Results: The meibum bacterial content of these microbiomes was dissimilar in these two different types of individuals. Almost all of the most significant taxonomic changes in the meibum microbiome of individuals with MGD were also present in their eyelid skin, but not in the conjunctiva. Such site-specific microbe pattern changes accompany increases in the gene expression levels controlling carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Most of the microbiomes in patients with MGD possess a microbe population capable of metabolizing benzoate. Pathogens known to underlie ocular infection were evident in these individuals. MGD meibum contained an abundance of Campylobacter coli, Campylobacter jejuni, and Enterococcus faecium pathogens, which were almost absent from HCs. Functional annotation indicated that in the microbiomes of MGD meibum their capability to undergo chemotaxis, display immune evasive virulence, and mediate type IV secretion was different than that in the microbiomes of meibum isolated from HCs. Conclusions: MGD meibum contains distinct microbiota whose immune evasive virulence is much stronger than that in the HCs. Profiling differences between the meibum microbiome makeup in HCs and patients with MGD characterizes changes of microbial communities associated with the disease status.